abstracts of project studies course 5 · brazilian family farming agenda for rural sustainable...

Abstracts of Project Studies Course 5

Managing Global Governance (MGG)

Training and Dialogue Programme implemented jointly by

Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE)

and Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung (InWEnt)

© Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) and InWEnt

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Table of contents

Author Title Page

Ancira García, Andrea Developing research on art festivals 3

Bueno, Marco Good governance through the implementation of the United Nations Convention to combat desertification: a gender approach

4

Coggin , Thomas The institutional legitimacy of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights

5

Domingues, Alexander Food or Fuel? Do we have to choose? The Brazilian Family Farming Agenda for Rural Sustainable Development

6

El-Essawy , Yasmine Civil society and global governance. Case study: Egypt

7

El Rassass, Mona Salem How E-governance can help reduce the level of Corruption and achieve Transparency

8

JIN Ling Experiences Sharing: What EU and China Can Learn from Each Other in Africa-From Aid Perspective

9

Kumar, Vipan Energy imperative for developing word. Case study: Brazil, China and India

10

Malaza , David The study on the international best practices on the use of parole to reduce prison overcrowding

11

Meena, Krishnendra Geopolitics in Antarctica. Role of the Antarctic treaty system as a mechanism of governance

12

Osman , Walid Egypt: Employment communication strategy 13

PEI Yanije The transatlantic relation’s future and how do the US and the EU deal with Russia

14

Rezende, Christiane Environmental sustainability fostering competitiveness of tourism destinations: a dynamic approach

15

Sharma , Arun Gender responsive budgeting 16

Simanjuntak, Sinta Dame The role of Indonesian education and training for civil servants in promoting global governance: lessons learned from MGG programme

17

Syukriyah, Daim A preliminary analysis of policy programs on school enrollment: a case study of Indonesian’s school operational assistance (BOS) program 2005/2006

18

Valencia, Vivian Climate change and food security adaptation strategies in agriculture

19

XIONG Hou The comparison of government expenditure between China and EU from the perspective of growth impact

20

Yadav, Suresh The intellectual property rights, e-commerce and transfer pricing in global governance (review of global tax architecture)

21

ZHANG Chun EU – Africa inter-regionalism revisited 22


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Abstract Andrea Ancira García

Developing research on art festivals The main objective of this research proposal is to analyse to what extent cultural production forums in Mexico, such as contemporary arts festivals, can be considered as arenas that enhance democratic debate and if so, what the implications are for development and democracy. The author assumes that the making and organisation of festivals, as well as their participation and attendance, are relevant for studying broader cultural and political themes. The analysis of the complex social dynamics of art festivals highlights the relationship between democracy, development and cultural production in Mexico. The research is inspired by the author's experience with the Interdisciplinary Centre for Comparative Research in the Social Sciences (ICCR) Euro-Festival, a project that aims to explore to what extent arts festivals are relevant in the European public sphere and thereby in the construction of a European identity. Hereby, the author strives to transcend the prevailing, instrumentalist approach which regards contemporary art festivals as tools that public or private actors use for achieving different goals, mainly economic. After explaining the insights and experiences gained during her participation at the ICCR Euro-Festival Project and her reasons to participate in it, the author goes on developing the main aspects of her research proposal to Mexico’s National Council of Arts Initiative (FONCA) within the framework of the 2206-2012 National Culture

Programme. The methodology of this project will be based on case studies. It will analyse two festivals in Mexico: the binational contemporary art festival InSite, based in the city of Tijuana and taking place annually since 1995; and the International Contemporary Film Festival (FICCO), organised since 2003 in Mexico City. In the fourth and last part of her research proposal the author advances some lessons learned and policy recommendations. She recommends to promote research that provides systematic information on arts festivals in Mexico and specifically addressing social and cultural issues. The author also argues that arts festivals can be a valuable field for development cooperation topics such as: the lessons that can be learned from cross-border cultural cooperation; the potential and the limits of decentralised development cooperation in the cultural sphere; the optimal development of management capacities at local levels for meeting the needs created by new cooperation agreements in other cultural arenas, among others.


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Abstract Marco Bueno

Good governance through the implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification: a gender approach Although desertification – the environmental, social and economic degradation of drylands – affects women more prominently than men, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), which entered into force more than a decade ago, still lacks a comprehensive gender policy. Thus, the research objective of Bueno was to make a preliminary contribution to drafting a strategic gender policy yet to be developed within the UNCCD 10-years Strategic Plan 2008-2018 (10YSP) framework by recommending priority objectives and their indicators of achievement, outputs, beneficiaries, activities and a time frame. The author sustains that UNCCD has the potential to become a model for gender mainstreaming in environmental conventions, as it already is for global governance issues. Bueno explains that global sustainable development governance is strongly influenced by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), a strategic framework on development and sustainability issues, two issues that are crucial to fight poverty and desertification, land degradation and drought (DLDD) in drylands. These are precisely the issues dealt with within UNCCD. UNCCD also represents the closest approximation to universal membership ever achieved by any multilateral environmental agreement due to its 193 signatory country members. It thus seems to be the most appropriate global governance tool to match the challenges of the MDGs. However, for that purpose it first of all needs an effective gender policy. In his article, Bueno develops a methodology to support a UNCCD gender policy. He first choses five organisations whose work relates to drylands, and on which he will focus his attention, which are: the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the Global Environment Fund (GEF). Bueno then conducts a comparative desk review of gender mainstreaming policies from these major organisations. At a second stage, he presents the results of interviews conducted with gender specialists in two selected organisations, aiming at understanding how their gender policies are being implemented on the ground. By doing so, he draws some learned lessons which the drafting of a UNCCD gender policy could benefit from. Finally, he suggests some preliminary objectives, expected accomplishments, indicators, outputs, beneficiaries, activities and a time frame with the aim of setting parameters and potentially contribute to a new gender policy yet to be developed as part of the UNCCD 10YSP.


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Abstract Thomas Coggin

The institutional legitimacy of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights Being convinced that the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR) can learn from the experiences of both its European (European Court of Human Rights) and Inter-American (Inter-American Court of Human Rights) counterparts, Coggin dedicates his paper develop a number of jurisprudential recommendations to improve the functioning of the ACJHR, by comparing the three organisms. The main concern for the author is how to face the complex question of pushing forward the issue of human rights in Africa, whilst at the same time responding to the very real constraints of political power ensuing from the overtly state-centric realpolitik setting of African countries. Coggin finds that, since the nation states are the primary implementing agencies of human rights principles, it is important that they regard the court as their partner rather than as their antagonist. The paper consists of two parts. In the first, analytical section, Coggin develops the concept of institutional legitimacy, particularly within a transnational realm, and also elaborates on the need to have a Court on Human Rights in Africa. He also gives an outline of the ACJPR, including its founding documents, its achievements, its setbacks, as well as its interplay with the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights. In the second section the author gives recommendations and policy options, looking into the possible jurisprudential debates that should emerge from the Court if it wants to ensure effective judicial policy making. This section is informed by a comparison of the problems faced and solutions found in both the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (the Inter-American Court) and the European Court of Human Rights (the European Court). In this last section the author also focuses on ACJHR's legitimacy and on its effective judicial policy making. Coggin develops a jurisprudence based on the experiences of the Inter-American and the European Courts because, as he argues, they have faced the same challenges in the past as their African counterpart is now facing. The main argument behind Coggin’s jurisprudence is that the Court ought to gain, preserve and increment its legitimacy in a context where states are not altogether prepared to cede their human rights protection to a transnational body. It is therefore crucial that the Court's decisions do not antagonise African states so as to prevent the future effectiveness of the Court. The ACJHR has to find a balance between protecting the rights of individuals, whilst at the same time ensuring its decisions do not appear to impede on the sovereignty of African states. This can be a chance, too, by fostering a dialogue between states on how to achieve human rights, and elaborate review standards that allow them to remain sensitive to their own political role, all the while subtly pushing states forward towards internalising international human rights norms.


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Abstract Alexander P. Domingues

Food or fuel? Do we have to choose? The Brazilian family farming agenda for rural sustainable development The biofuels debate became significant during the beginning of the 21st century. First, biofuels seemed to be an important alternative to oil in the economic, social and environmental fields. But soon some studies began to indicate that biofuels were responsible for the rising of world food prices and for environmental problems. In this context, the objective of Domingues’ study is to analyse the food or fuel debate from the perspective of the Brazilian policies that aim at strengthening family farming while also fostering the agribusiness and thus the production of biofuels. In the first part of his study Domingues presents the arguments of the food or fuel debate. While some voices and studies state that biofuels are not an efficient option to solve the world's need for energy, others maintain that biofuels production could be a pathway for the development of rural areas and thus for diminishing world poverty rates. Domingues then goes on to present the current Brazilian conceptual framework which has been guiding the policy making processes in the agricultural field since 1995. As the author explains, the Brazilian National Program for Biodiesel Production (PNPB) operates with a dual agenda: it promotes the agribusiness and thus the production of biofuels while trying to foster the familiar farming by linking it to the former as supply provider. The third section is devoted mainly to discuss the implications of the PNPB for Brazilian food security, and for the sustainability of the Brazilian rural development when combining the production of crops for biofuels and for human consumption. Finally, the author gives a couple of policy recommendations, concentrating his attention towards measures to increase farming productivity. He suggests that instead of focusing on the question food or fuels, it would be better to discuss which agricultural concepts provides profitable opportunities for sustainable rural development within a rural sustainable development framework.


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Abstract Yasmine El-Assawy

Civil society and global governance. Case study: Egypt. Since the beginning of the century the old antagonistic relation between civil society and inter-governmental organisations have largely been replaced by a more complex picture in which there are no easy answers nor immediate consensus. El-Assawy aims at shedding light on the civil society in Egypt and its main challenges and constraints, both those inherent to its internal organisation and those related to state regulation. In the first section of her study the author describes the relation between civil society and global governance and identifies the main tasks for civil society, whose main expression she finds in non governmental organisations (NGOs). NGOs fill the gap left by the state’s retreat from areas of social service, they foster democratisation by identifying and bringing to public attention problems that are not being addressed by the official instances, they promote and protect basic human rights and give voice to different social, political, environmental and community interests and concerns. Consequently, in order to promote global governance and thus to tackle and solve global problems, the author finds that it is necessary to pay attention to civil society, as non-state actors assume an important role in many political areas due to the processes of deregulation and privatisation . The next two sections are dedicated to depicting the current situation of civil society in Egypt. The author first addresses its historical background, describing the social regulation implemented by the regimes that followed the revolution after 1952. She then goes on analysing the main (legal) constraints and challenges faced by civil society organisations in Egypt. The most prominent constraints are: the state of emergency, promulgated in 1981 and still in force; government interference; dependency from foreign funding and organisational weaknesses. In the fourth and last section, El-Assawy provides policy recommendations in order to foster the vitality of civil society in Egypt. She considers that the existence of a real and genuine multi-party system that enables the founding of strong and effective political parties is indispensable. This, however, would imply a radical change in the political parties licensing committee and a less restrictive fundraising supervision. But above all, the author considers that the state of emergency must come to an end, since it impedes freedom of association and consequently the emergence of an effective civil society.


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Abstract Mona Salem El-Rassass

How E-governance can help reduce the level of corruption and achieve transparency Starting from the idea that the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) can help improve transparency through publishing information and allowing interactivity, El-Rassass suggests that electronic governance (E-governance) can be one of the solutions for reducing corruption. In her study, the author concentrates on several governance issues that can be improved by implementing ICT and discusses the experiences of different countries in applying measures that go in this direction. In the first section of her paper, El-Rassass presents different international assessments of corruption levels in Egypt, after the country adhered to the World Bank definition of corruption. The author then comments on Egypt's main deficiencies regarding the country's fight against corruption. After defining her operative concepts, like governance and E-governance, the author mentions a number of E-governance instruments that can be helpful to reduce corruption and enhance transparency, such as public access to information, accountability and public participation and public services automatisation. She then focuses on each of these key issues, endorsing her position with a number of examples taken from the experiences by several countries. In the final part of her study, the author makes several recommendations to ensure successful E-governance programmes. Among these are: the importance of political support to the project, an appropriate legal framework, media campaigns for incrementing public awareness of the citizens’ rights, a gradual implementation of the project and the importance of keeping the projects simple, as some of the other countries’ experiences have shown that the more interlinked stakeholders are involved in a project, the more probably it will fail.


9

Abstract Jin Ling

Sharing experiences : What EU and China can learn from each other in Africa from an aid perspective With China’s increasing role in Africa, the African issue has been high on the China-European Union (EU) agenda. Although in October 2008, the EU Commission published its communication on China-EU-Africa trilateral cooperation, the author considers the future cooperation as rather gloomy, due to the wide gap of perception between EU and China as to each others’ Africa approaches, which hampers the political will and the operationalisation of the cooperation. In her study, Jin argues that the tensions between the EU and China over African issues are caused by their different development stages, by the different development models they represent, as well as by their different aid cooperation experiences with Africa. To develop her point of view, the author divides her study into four parts, of which the first two are dedicated to the different strategies towards Africa followed by the EU and by China respectively. In the third part of her study, Jin suggests that the EU and China strategies towards Africa are not necessarily contradictory. The fourth and last part of the study makes some suggestions to foster the mutual understanding between the EU and China regarding African issues. Jin starts with a typology of the Chinese and EU cooperation policies towards Africa. The three main distinction between the two strategies according to the author are the opposition between a) the “no-political-conditions-attached” versus the “conditionality” approach, b) the “two-way cooperation” versus the “one-way benevolence” principle and c) the “win-win relation” versus the “co-responsibility” approach, respectively. These different approaches result in different priorities. Generally speaking, the main difference between the two actors is that while China concentrates mainly on economic infrastructure, flexible instruments and project-based funds, the EU focuses on social infrastructure, grants and budget support funding. The author argues that the Chinese experience as an emerging foreign aid recipient and emergent donor can be useful for both sides in fostering mutual comprehension. At the same time the EU, by promoting good governance in Africa, has learned three important lessons: democratic governance cannot be imposed from outside, governance promotion must be tailored to each concrete case, and the implementation of any needed reform must be gradual. These three aspects have been included in the present debate about political reforms in China according to the author. The author concludes that both the Chinese and the European approaches will be facing problems in the short and long run. Although she is aware that mutual gaps of perception render a broad cooperation difficult, she nevertheless advocates for both parts sharing their experiences with each other, in order to improve their mutual cooperation as well as their respective cooperation with Africa.


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Abstract Vipan Kumar

Energy imperatives for the developing world. Case study: Brazil, China and India In his study, Vipan Kumar deals with the current situation of energy related issues in three of the fastest developing nations, which are: India, China and Brazil. With the unequal energy consumption between the average inhabitant of developed and developing countries in mind, the author suggests that the latter ought to increase their per capita energy consumption in order to keep up with economic development. Kumar specifies that this raise of energy consumption does not necessarily translate into increased green house gas (GHG) emissions, since it is possible to maintain a clean environment by using appropriate fuels and innovative technology. Therefore future technological advancements will ensure that the developing world will shift from fossil fuels based energy to clean renewable energy solutions. The main challenge, the author argues, is how to simultaneously develop and achieve the target of GHG reduction.

The first part of the study tackles the issue of anthropogenic GHG related global warming. The efforts by Brazil, China and India to curb the climatic and environmental damages while simultaneously following their economic and industrial development path are briefly discussed. China has a very clear approach to climate change issues. According to the white paper issued by the Chinese Government, the development path is set as the very first priority. On the other hand, India and Brazil have a more differentiated approach, as they both would like to keep up their self commitments towards the climate change issue.

The author then addresses the current trends of energy consumption and production of each of the three countries. After having established that these countries are much below the world average regarding per capita energy consumption, Kumar advocates that they actually increase their energy consumption. He also highlights the problem of energy self sufficiency, as all three countries highly depend on imports in order to meet their energy demands. Finally, Kumar shows that there is a strong relation between foreign direct investments (FDI) from developed countries to the three case countries and GHG emissions. However, China seems to face less challenges regardomg FDI related climate change issues than India and Brazil.

In the third part the author discusses the Research and Development (R&D) activities in the energy area of the case countries. These are compared to the USA, Russia, South Korea, France and Britain in eight key sectors: coal, petroleum, gas hydrates, solar, wind energy, fuels cell, bio energy, and LED. The results show that in almost all the fields the developed countries have a clear technological edge. China does well in the solar, wind, fuel cell, bio energy and LED areas but is still far below the developed countries. The final chapter gives an insight into viable energy scenarios based on short, medium and long term planning in India, China and Brazil.


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Abstract David M. Malaza

International best practices regarding the use of parole to reduce prison overcrowding This study compares South African correctional services with one of the parole systems used in Germany. Malaza identifies overcrowding as one of the main problems of the South African penal system, since the 243 country’s prisons have more than 184 800 inmates, when they are intended for only 114 000. With these figures in mind, the author studies the parole system in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia in order to make recommendations for the South African Department of Correctional Services. To begin with, Malaza describes parole as a legal procedure by which a legal prison board administratively releases inmates from prison to serve the remainder of his sentence in the community. This measure is aimed not only at reducing or preventing overcrowding in prisons, but also at fostering the social reintegration of the parolee. The author also presents the different categories of the German criminal code, which distinguishes between crimes and felonies (Verbrechen), misdemeanors (Vergehen) and even regulatory or administrative offences (Ordnungswidrigkeiten). In his study Malaza concentrates on the decriminalisation of minor offenses which gave birth precisely to the last category, as it has a direct relation with the punishment system and therefore with his intended recommendations to the South African Department of Correctional Services. The author advocates for a new crime classification, among other reasons in order to reach international legal standards. He uses the example of prostitution to illustrate his suggestion. Prostitution is still considered a crime in South Africa whereas in Germany and other countries it has been reclassified as an administrative offense. A more extensive use of fines in South Africa, in order to reserve prison sentences to crimes and felonies, could also be useful to avoide prison overcrowding.


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Abstract Krishnendra Meena

Geopolitics in Antarctica. Role of the Antarctic treaty system as a mechanism of governance Because of its geographical and climatic particularities, the Antarctica constitutes a particular case in global governance, according to the author of this study. Inherent characteristics like its remoteness and its lack of inhabitants, together with international political and economic realities, like the Cold War and the search for resources, have created a situation in which a group of countries feared the post-war superpowers could claim territorial sovereignty on the continent or over parts of it. In order to resolve this situation, negotiations to create a governing regime in the Antarctica started in December 1959 and came into force on 23 June 2009. The treaty in its original form covers the geographical area south of 60° latitude to the South Pole. It was originally signed by twelve parties which were then active in the Antarctica with scientific expeditions and research stations: the seven claimant states, namely Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Great Britain, Norway and New Zealand along with Belgium, Japan, South Africa, the United States of America and the Soviet Union. The primary objectives of the treaty also reflected the international order of the period as they laid emphasis upon demilitarisation, peaceful scientific cooperation and the renunciation of claims over territory in the Antarctica. An analysis of the text would reveal that the demilitarisation clause is indicative of the claimant parties’ apprehensions regarding the role of the super powers in the Antarctic region. A second notable aspect of the treaty is that it was negotiated outside the United Nations’ scope, reflecting the desire of the participating states of maintaining exclusive rights in the region and avoiding the internationalisation of the territorial claims. The treaty and its components (ATS) together have been generally considered a success, but the author argues that this opinion is highly exaggerated. He focuses on two main challenges the treaty faces. The first relates to the frozen territorial claims in the Antarctica and the Southern Oceans. The second has its roots in the international law concerning the seas as the claims in the Antarctic are complicated because of their physical nature and the difficulties related to their delineation. In his study, Meena describes the rationale of the seven treaty claimant countries and shows how the overlapping presence of two sets of laws for one region – namely the ATS, which arbitrary delimits the sea boundaries of the claimant states in the region and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea III (UNCLOS III) – causes tensions and ambiguities within issues such as nature preservation, frozen territorial claims, exploitation of fisheries and a whole set of mining and oil interests.


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Abstract Walid Osman

Egypt: Employment communication strategy In order to cope with the threat of an increase of the already high unemployment rates in Egypt, the local International Labour Organisation (ILO) office launched in 2009 the project “Effective School to Work Transition through Career Information and Guidance for Youth”. This project, organised in cooperation with the Egyptian Ministries of Manpower and Migration, of Education and of Trade and Industry, aims at solving the paradox situation of high unemployment rates on one hand and the difficulty for private sector employers to find appropriate employees for vacant jobs on the other hand. The study suggests that the reason might be found in the perceptions and expectations of the young work seekers, who represent 92 percent of the national unemployed. These persons generally look for administrative white collar jobs and consider blue collar as minor value jobs. The ILO campaign therefore aims at enhancing the perception of blue collar jobs and at promoting a culture of entrepreneurship.

Trying to take advantage of the great influence of the media upon Egyptian audiences, the ILO campaign concentrates on the electronic and printed local mass media and hits simultaneously at several targets, Osman explains in his study. These targets are to increase youth awareness about the current demands of the Egyptian labour market and possible job opportunities; to promote the services of the Youth Employment Units among young people, their families and communities; to promote a culture of entrepreneurship and small enterprise, and finally to make employment-related ILO activities more attractive to stakeholders, donors and to a possible general public. In his study, Osman details the different aspects of the campaign, such as the target audience, the products, which include a documentary film and a website, radio and TV spots, and different promotional events. A close contact with journalist specialised in employment issues is also considered a vital part of the project. Finally, the author focuses on the post-campaign stage, saying that the project will conduct surveys to test the different job perceptions and expectations. In addition it will also measure the reach of the campaign and see whether people have heard about it or not, and whether the campaign message was delivered to them or not.


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Abstract Pei Yanjie

The future of transatlantic relation and how the US and the EU deal with Russia As a result of recent geostrategic shifts, the European Union (EU) currently faces a crucial era, and must decide if it wants to become a full actor in a multi-polar world or if it will continue being a follower in the context of its relation with the United States (US).

Caught between the United States’ (US) diminished political capital and soft power and the more assertive Russian external policy, the EU must redefine its transatlantic relation with the US and acknowledge that due to the increasing importance of energetic issues, its relations with Russia are becoming more important that its actual transatlantic relation.

The author recognises the importance of the transatlantic relation both to the EU and to the US. According to him, no other partnership around the world has the same breadth, depth and outreach nor can project the same degree of power, influence, and capacity to act. But at the same time, the damage infringed to the US reputation by the Iraq invasion jeopardised the US ability to play a dominant role in the next years. Therefore, Pei argues, the EU and the US ought to transform their relation into a more equal one, as both need each other to play a constructive role and to tackle a number of global issues, ranging from the fight against terrorism and the handling of the current financial crisis to European integration.

However, the author suggests that the realignment of the transatlantic relation necessarily implies a new European approach towards Russia, due to the affirmative Russian Policy and to its energy resources. For a number of reasons, the relation between the US and Russia is likely to continue deteriorating. As a consequence, it is up to the EU to take the corresponding steps to improve its relation with Moscow. In the last part of his study Pei makes several recommendations to the EU, which are centered around the idea of multipolarity. The EU should enhance its internal coordination in order to establish a common energy policy and speak to Washington or Moscow with a single voice; the EU should also keep an intense strategic dialogue with Russia while avoiding policies that only serve to provoke this country.


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Abstract Christiane Rezende

Environmental sustainability fostering competitiveness of tourism destinations: a dynamic approach Drawing upon entrepreneurial competitiveness and sustainability theories, the author aims at understanding the relation between environmental sustainability and competitiveness of tourism destinations. The author assumes that both the attractiveness and the competitiveness of tourism destinations can be increased by a proper quality environmental management. This understanding can positively be applied to improve the delimitation of responsibilities between the public sector, in charge of tourism infrastructure, and the private sector, answerable for the tourism services. A better comprehension of the relation between environmental sustainability and competitiveness can also foster governance issues, governance being understood by the author as the sum of all different ways in which both individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. In her study, the author reviews different competitiveness theories, all of which were originally developed for business and managerial purposes. Applied to the tourism sector, these theories show that there is a correlation between sustainability and competitiveness. The author then focuses on the question of how to foster competitiveness through environmentally sustainable measures. This question is not gratuitous because, as the author points out, while the public tourism sector provides infrastructure with the aim of obtaining social benefits to the destination, the private sector provides tourism services with profit as its final objective. In the final part of her study, Rezende presents a detailed list of recommendations to enhance an environmentally sustainable tourism industry.


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Abstract Arun Sharma

Gender responsive budgeting Budgets are executive financial instruments that translate policies into practice by raising revenues, allocating resources and distributing public money at the national or subnational levels. Therefore, budgets are essentially political documents, wherein a government lays out its commitments according to its political priorities. But while in some societies the position of women is desirable, in most parts of the world women often have to compete with their male counterparts for resources and an equitable position in the society. The main argument of the study is that gender responsive budgeting (GRB) is one of the many tools available with the executive in promoting overall gender mainstreaming and gender equality. Gender responsive budgeting (GRB) is about ensuring that government budgets and the policies and programs that underlie them address the needs and interests of individuals that belong to different social groups. Nonetheless, as the author explains, there are several obstacles to implementing GRB, as GRB cannot be adopted as a tool without a proper and genuine gender sensitisation. The secrecy and complexity which often surrounds the budget planning may also hinder public involvement in it. Sharma identifies the political will and leadership as a decisive factor in implementing GRB, as the examples of South Africa and Australia show: both countries, once pioneers in this issue, have discontinued it. Sharma analyses the benefits of GRB and therefore resorts to several countries' experiences. He emphasises the influence of GRB in attaining higher rates of economic growth, as GRB results in improved opportunities for women in the areas of health care, education and employment. A gender responsive budget also boosts efficiency, equity, a participatory approach and involvement of all stakeholders, transaprency and acountability. Considering these benefits, the author suggests that a gender responsive budget is an important tool for ensuring greater consistency between economic goals and social commitments and thus a basic tool of good governance. The author dedicates an important part of his study to develop a detailed list of policy recommendations to the Indian government and includes a gender diagnosis in India as an appendix.


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Abstract Sinta Dame Simanjuntak

The role of Indonesian education and training for civil servants in promoting global governance: lessons learned from the MGG programme The author assesses her own participation in the InWEnt/DIE Managing Global Governance programme (MGG) and draws several conclusions and policy recommendations to improve the civil servants’ education and training in Indonesia. Simanjuntak focuses on the Indonesian contribution to international cooperation and global governance as an anchor country. In her study, the author describes the different parts and elements that constitute the MGG course and compares them with the courses imparted in Indonesia by the National Institute of Public Administration – Republic of Indonesia (LAN – RI), an institute which is in charge of implementing education and training programmes for Indonesian public service employees, as well as research development on public administration. Simanjuntak explains that in Indonesia education and training are obligatory to every civil servant who is being promoted to a higher level, and LAN – RI is the official institution responsible for imparting such education and training. In other words, this institution has a significant role in promoting global governance. Almost all kinds of issues, be they at local, national or global, are addressed in its training classrooms. After describing the different phases of the MGG course, both in Bonn and Berlin, the author concentrates on her own experience during the practice phase of the programme, when she visited several institutions in Switzerland, the Netherlands and Spain. She then focuses on the training methods these institutions develop and apply, and concludes by sketching some recommendations to improve the efficiency of LAN – RI training programmes.


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Abstract Daim Syukriyah

A preliminary analysis of policy programs on school enrollment: a case study of Indonesian’s school operational assistance (BOS) program 2005/2006 Achieving universal primary education by 2015 is the second priority of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). In an attempt to reach this goal, Indonesia has launched the School Operational Assistance (BOS) Programme during the academic year 2005/2006 in order to provide more opportunities for students – particularly poor ones – to bear their educations costs. Syukriyah dedicates her study to the households’ perception of local education services and the information given by school principals. She also traces a comparison between the BOS and the PROGRESA programme in Mexico, applied between 1997 and 2002. On the basis of the household survey data, the author observes that most of the families have seen improvements in the school. As for household members who are still enrolled in school, they have seen some improvements in their school facilities, more affordable fees, more attentiveness of their teachers and better academic achievements at school. Similarly, the school principal school survey data confirms that BOS funds have been used to help students and poor students to get better access to schools. Besides, the funds were also used to increment the teaching qualities and school facilities. In the first chapter of her study, the author provides a literature review including studies conducted to examine the determinants of schooling and the effects of the programmes on school participation in developing countries. The chapter also gives a brief description of the policy reforms implemented in the Indonesian education system. The following chapter presents a theoretical framework on the decision for schooling, while the third section gives some background information on the used data. The empirical analysis of the program based on households and school principals’ data is given in the fourth chapter. Finally, the author concludes with some lessons learned from both the BOS Program and the PROGRESA Education Programme regarding the goal of achieving universal primary education. Although the issue needs to be further investigated, Syukriyah finds that BOS has been a new way to motivate students and poor students to get into schools in Indonesia. Similarly, there is clear evidence that PROGRESA has improved school participation by making school attendance conditional for the participant’s children.


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Abstract Vivian Valencia

Climatic change and food security adaptation strategies in agriculture During the last years discussions about climatic change have shifted from the question whether this phenomenon actually exists, towards the necessity to find ways to stop it and to face its inevitable consequences. According to the author, climate change is one of the most important challenges that we face today; it is a force that will lead to fundamental changes in our societies, economies, policies and, most importantly, in our mindsets. The objective of the study is to inform policy- and decision-makers about the impacts of climate change on food security and about possible challenges for agriculture. Adaptation strategies play an important role in shaping the development of agriculture in a sustainable way and in increasing its resilience vis-à-vis climate change. Thus, climate change provides a valuable approach to develop agriculture in a sustainable way and to safeguard a country’s food security. Vulnerable livelihoods require fast and sustainable solutions that will allow them to increase their adaptive capacity to the impacts of climate change. In her paper, Valencia analyses several adaptation strategies, bearing in mind the adaptation needs of the most vulnerable livelihoods in agriculture: small-holders and family-farmers. The feasibility of implementing adaptation strategies is discussed as well, given the socio-economic context and the discouraging level of attention this sector receives from authorities. In the first chapter of her study, which she divides into two parts, Valencia first explains the relation between climate change and food security, detailing the impact of the former on different aspects of food security, such as food availability, food access, food use and food stability. The author then focuses on the impact of climate change on the agricultural system, explaining that it depends not only on environmental but also on social factors. The second chapter of the study deals with the impact of climate change in Latin America, with a particular focus on Mexico, a country which is becoming drier and hotter and therefore more vulnerable to extreme climate events and to the uncertainty of weather variability, as the author puts it. The adaptations strategies are the locus of the third chapter. The author distinguishes four main categories: new technologies, behavioural/management change, new infrastructure and investments and markets. In the last part of her study, the author advances a series of recommendations based on the above mentioned adaptations strategies and their supporting policies.


20

Abstract

Xiong Hou

The comparison of government expenditure between China and EU from the perspective of growth impact The present study assumes that the quality of government expenditure might have an impact on long-term economic growth. Its analysis is based on the Classification of the Functions of Government (COFOG), which divides government expenditure into ten categories: general public services, defense, public order and safety, economic affairs, environmental protection, housing and community amenities, health, recreation, culture and religion, education and social protection. Xiong finds this classification very useful to identify the different types of governmental expenditure. Xiong starts with a static comparison of functional government expenditure between China and EU and analyses why there is such a big difference between the two actors. The COFOG indicates that EU has a higher ratio of expenditure on each sub-category to GDP than China. The biggest difference is in the redistribution. EU’s ratio is 18.3 per cent, while China’s is only 2.17. There is a big difference in health expenditure, too: 6.6 per cent versus 0.79. Xiong explains that these differences reflect different priorities in different development phases. China is a developing country and needs more input into economic activity. On the other hand, the EU is a mature market economy and a well-developed economic area, which can afford a relatively good social security system. The second chapter looks into the development of functional government expenditure in China and the EU and presents some future trends. The author foresees that the ratio of China’s government expenditure to GDP will be increased, especially in the social security, health and education areas. Although the EU tries to reduce the government expenditure to keep the public finance sustainable, a reduction of expenditures in redistribution and health will be hard to implement considering the aging society and thus the political unpopularity of such measures. In the third chapter the author reviews the quality of functional government expenditure. He finds that in fact neither China nor the EU has a very good quality public finance, although each actor faces totally different challenges. China invests too little on redistribution and health, while the EU invests too much. Xiong provides some policy advices in the fourth chapter. He recommends both China and the EU to modify their government expenditure. China faces the challenge of how to take more responsibilities and strengthen its growth-enhancing expenditure structure. The EU has a big budgetary burden and needs to control the size of government expenditure. As the author puts it, it is easier to increase the expense than to control or reduce it. Consequently, he finds that China has a bigger maneuvering room than the EU. Xiong concludes that the ratio of China’s government expenditure to GDP will be increased in the long run, especially in the areas of social security, health and education. On the other side, EU tries to reduce government expenditure to keep public finance sustainable. So the ratio gap of government expenditure to GDP between China and EU will be narrowed.


21

Abstract Yadav Suresh

The intellectual property rights, e-commerce and transfer pricing in global governance (review of tax architecture) One of the main issues which have arisen with the current financial crisis is the role of low tax and opaque jurisdictions, commonly known as tax heavens. Though the role of such low tax jurisdiction has always been debated and criticised, for the first time in the post-Second World War, nations hosting such tax heavens have received the threat of economic sanctions, after the G-2O explicitly tackled the issue. In an integrated world, it has become easy to develop intellectual property rights (IPR) in one area and transfer or assign them to an economically advantageous economic jurisdiction for further trade and services. Therefore, the economic cost of the development of intellectual property rights may be in one economic jurisdiction and the exploitation may be in another economic jurisdiction. The exploitation of intellectual property rights may generate substantial revenue and the economic jurisdiction actually disposing of the right would get more benefits than the economic jurisdiction which developed it. The tax heavens and low tax jurisdictions have been the main beneficiaries of the shift of the intellectual property rights, while the capital exporting and capital importing countries both have been losers in this process. This kind of situation has led and will continue leading to multilateral disputes, the author suggests. The paper starts with an analysis of intellectual property rights in the context of e-commerce and transfer pricing. IPR regimes in selected jurisdictions are opposed and compared. Shurash also briefly discusses the disputes arising out of the intangibles in some of the famous cases, as well as the dispute resolution mechanisms and their adequacy. Looking at the present international situation and the impact of the financial crisis on developing countries, the possibility of an international tax organisation has been explored and suggested. The author suggests that such an entity could either be based within an already existing international organisation or be established as a separate one. He concludes that there finally is a general understanding that the good governance of off shore tax jurisdictions and tax heavens is essential for a sound public financial system, and that it is time to regulate both this issue and IPR and transfer pricing.


22

Abstract Zhang Chun

EU – Africa inter-regionalism revisited This study focuses on the European Union (EU) – Africa inter-regionalism, and aims at understanding its functioning, its inner organisation and the gains and losses both partners face. In the first chapter Zhang gives a theoretical survey of the concepts of regionalism and inter-regionalism and suggests four functions of inter-regionalism: power balancing, institutional proliferation and agenda setting, stability and development promotion, and identity-building. The author then goes on describing the general framework of the EU – Africa relations, concentrating on the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) and its associated Action Plan. These were adopted in Lisbon in December 2007 and were designed to change the nature of relations between Africa and the EU. However, Zhong suggests that the most urgent issues for Africa are instability and underdevelopment, rather than the eight topics mentioned in the EU – Africa strategic partnership (peace and security, democratic governance and human rights, trade, regional integration and infrastructure, MDGs, energy, climate change, migration, mobility and employment, science, information society and space). The author therefore introduces the development-security nexus as an analytical tool to study the Africa – EU inter-regionalism, maintaining that the interdependence between development and security has been deepening since 11 September 2001. In the third chapter, the author reviews the history of the different development cooperation treaties and conventions between Europe and Africa, and finds that the EU – Africa treaties tend to state peace and security as the preconditions for sustainable development, but not vice versa; that the focus of EU’s aid flows has shifted from the development promotion to conflict prevention; and that Africa has come to play a major role in positioning the EU as a significant international actor, especially by testing its Common Foreign and Security Policy and its European Security and Defense Policy. The fourth chapter gives an overview on how the EU, beyond development aid, has been strengthening the EU – Africa inter-regional security cooperation through the support of the African Peace and Security Architecture, the engagement in conflict management in Africa, or the provision of humanitarian aid, among others. After showing that EU – Africa cooperation, though contributing to the development of both regions, has generally served the EU more than Africa, Zhong analyses EU – Africa inter-regionalism according to the four functions mentioned in the first chapter. Finally, the author concludes with some recommendations to both actors. Although EU – Africa inter-regionalism has had many benefits for both parties, it is very clear that the EU-Africa inter-regionalism is what it had always been – an asymmetrical relationship between two groups with very unequal political and economic power.

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