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Ecology of Tropical Forest Systems
Forest VegetationStudies on the Foothillsof Mt. Pangasugan,Leyte/ The Philippines
Gerhard Langenberger
Eschborn, 2000
TÖB publication number: F-II/10e
Published by: Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbHPostfach 5180D-65726 Eschborn, Germany
Responsible: Begleitprogramm Tropenökologie (TÖB)Tropical Ecology Support ProgramDr. Claus Baetkeemail: toeb@gtz.de
Author: Gerhard Langenberger, Friedhofstrasse 11, 66996Erfweiler, Germanyemail: glangenber@aol.com
Layout: Michaela Hammer
ISBN: 3-933984-
Nominal fee: 10,-DM
Produced by: TZ Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-64380 Rossdorf
© 2000 All rights reserved
Preface
Tropical ecosystems are the essential life-sustaining basis for the majority of theEarth's human population. Human intervention is destroying the environment anddegrading natural resources at an alarming rate, increasingly jeopardising effortsto attain sustainable development and effectively alleviate poverty.The Tropical Ecology Support Program (TÖB) strives, in a developmentcooperation (DC) setting, to contribute to more effective processing, evaluationand implementation of the knowledge and experience gained on these issues.TÖB provides its services on a supraregional basis. The program is implementedby the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) on behalfof the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development(BMZ).TÖB supports, upon request, back-up studies on issues relating to tropicalecology. The program endeavours to further the development of concepts aimedat protecting and using tropical ecosystems sustainably. It also hopes thatinnovative tools can be derived from these concepts which can enhance theecological sustainability of DC projects.By incorporating scientific findings into advisory and consultancy activities, theprogram helps DC projects implement international agreements such as Agenda21 and the Convention on Biological Diversity, to which BMZ attaches greatimportance.It is pivotal to the design of the program that German and partner countryscientists work jointly on applications-oriented issues. TÖB thus makes animportant contribution to the practical training of counterparts and to theestablishment of tropical ecology expertise in partner countries.Through its publication series, TÖB makes the findings and recommendationsfor action that derive from its back-up studies accessible, in an understandableform, to the organisations and institutions operating in the developmentcooperation arena, and to a broader public with an interest in environment anddevelopment issues.
I. Hoven Dr. C. v. TuyllHead of Division:Environmental Policy, Protection of NaturalResources, Forestry; CSD, GDF
German Federal Ministry for EconomicCooperation and Development (BMZ)
Head of Division:Rural Development
Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Contents
I
Contents
FIGURES & TABLES .............................................................................. II
ABSTRACT............................................................................................III
1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................. 1
2 NATURAL SETTINGS ...................................................................... 52.1 Geography of the Philippines and the Island of Leyte ................5
2.2 Geology and Soils ....................................................................7
2.3 Climate of the Study Area .........................................................8
3 RESULTS...................................................................................... 113.1 Methodology.......................................................................... 11
3.2 Plant Diversity ........................................................................ 12
3.3 Tree Species, Habitat, and Forest Types ................................. 16
3.4 Additional Observations Concerning the Management of
Native Tree Species ................................................................ 20
4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................. 234.1 Reforestation with Native Species............................................ 23
5 REFERENCES ............................................................................... 27
APPENDICES ....................................................................................... 31Appendix 1: Glossary..................................................................... 31
Appendix 2: Species Encountered in the Study Area........................ 33
Appendix 3: Trees and Shrubs on the Foothills of Mt.
Pangasugan ............................................................................ 45
Appendix 4: Tree Species Suggested for Inclusion in the
Project´s Reforestation Scheme (Rainforestation)..................... 53
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
II
Figures
Fig 1: The Island of Leyte and the Location of the Study Site .................... 6
Fig. 2: Climatic Diagram of ViSCA......................................................... 10
Fig. 3: Number of Genera of the Most Common Families ........................ 13
Fig. 4: Number of Species of the Most Common Families ...................... 14
Fig. 5: Plant Groups in the Study Plots ................................................... 15
Tables
Table 1: TOR of TÖB Project "Forest Vegetation Studies on the
Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan" (PN: 90.2136.1-03.107) ................ 4
Table 2: The Occurrence of Dry Periods with a Duration of three
months or more since 1976....................................................... 9
Table 3: Plant Groups in the Study Plots................................................. 15
Abstract
III
Abstract
The vegetation on the foothills of Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte, The Philippines,
has been studied along an environmental gradient from ridge to stream bank.
On an overall area of 4900 m2 representing 49 plots, 687 vascular plant
species belonging to 111 families and 286 genera could be identified
(epiphytes were excluded). About 58 % of the species were trees. A list of
all plants identified to species level is given in appendix2.
The studied area offers a large source of native species for reforestation.
Many species show clear preferences in habitat, which means that a careful
selection of species for reforestations is required. To ensure sustainable and
economically successful reforestations with native species a lot of research
is still needed. This is especially true for species identification in the field,
the ecology of species, like habitat, growth dynamics, plant-animal
interactions, and finally on the management of mixed species reforestations.
A country-wide system of systematic species trials is suggested.
Key words: vegetation studies, native tree species, habitat requirements,
reforestation, Philippines.
Introduction
1
1 Introduction
During the last decades the Philippines has experienced extensive forest
destruction. The island of Leyte, the location of this study, lost about 45 %
or 77 000 ha of its forests between the years 1969 to 1984 (Forest
Management Bureau, 1987), reducing forest cover to a mere 10 % (Asio
1996) (Fig. 1). In 1987, the Forest Management Bureau calculated that a per
capita forest cover of 0.3 ha would be necessary to satisfy the population’s
needs for wood products on a sustained base. In 1980, the forest cover on
Leyte was 0.04 ha per person. Even without extrapolating the trend to the
present day, the situation is obvious. Apart from the ecological
consequences of forest destruction, serious economic problems have arisen
for local communities because the main raw material for construction, tools,
etc. has become a limited resource. Therefore, in 1990, the governments of
The Philippines and the Federal Republic of Germany established the
"Philippine-German Environmental Research and Development
Program" (PN 88.2122.5-01.100) which later on became the "ViSCA-
gtz Applied Tropical Ecology Program" (PN 95.2290.5-001.00). The
project is based at the Visayas State College of Agriculture (ViSCA) in
western Leyte.
The overall goal of the project is:
`to improve the ecological conditions in Leyte in order to uplift the
socio-economic life of the rural poor ‘.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
2
To achieve this goal the project developed a wide range of activities which
can be grouped into three categories
• education: covering environmental education and training, the
development of a curriculum on ecology for ViSCA, and the provision
of instructional material. The organisation of farmer communities can
also be included in this point.
• research: focusing on marine and terrestrial ecosystems
• application: e.g. the establishment of a marine sanctuary, island
development, eco livelihood activities, and reforestation with native
species.
The author’s study can be described as a combination of basic research
and applied research with the intention of supporting the project’s
reforestation activities of which the aim is to:
• create stable and sustainable forests with
• indigenous and locally adapted tree species, thus to help
• preserve local biodiversity and
• generate income for local communities and farmers.
The problem with such an approach is that the ecology of local forests is
still poorly understood. In contrast to the few highly recommended exotic
tree species which have been the focus of intense studies in the past (e.g.
Gmelina arborea or Swietenia macrophylla) very little is known about site
Introduction
3
requirements, regrowth mechanisms, nursery handling, etc. of indigenous
species. It was therefore the aim of the TÖB Project "Forest Vegetation
Studies on the Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan" (PN: 90.2136.1-03.107)
• to gain a better understanding of the vegetation and ecology of
primary forests,
• to identify native tree species suitable for reforestation and to
describe their habitat requirements,
• to support further biodiversity studies at ViSCA by the
establishment of a herbarium.
The study has been set up as a cooperation between the University of
Freiburg, Section Vegetation Science, and the ViSCA-gtz Applied Tropical
Ecology Program. At ViSCA the Dept. of Plant Protection / Herbarium, the
Dept. of Soil Science and the Dept. of Forestry were involved. The terms of
reference (TOR) are given in Table 1.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
4
Table 1: TOR of TÖB Project "Forest Vegetation Studies on the
Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan" (PN: 90.2136.1-03.107)
TOR Expected Results Achievement
1 Establishment of a herbarium for
ViSCA and the Philippine
National Herbarium;
List of species is submitted
Over 2000 plant numbers have
been collected and handed over
to the Dept. of Plant Breeding /
Herbarium
2 Forest Types and Correlations are
described
Will be published as a PhD thesis
3 Mapping of Forest Types and
Site Characteristics
Due to rugged relief of the area
not feasible
4 General Data Analysis and
Evaluation in the Context of
Reforestation Activities
Presented in this booklet
5 Involvement of local counterparts Support of the Herbarium staff
Support of the nursery activities
of the ‘Cienda - San Vincente
Farmer Community’
The involvement of local students
failed
Natural Settings
5
2 Natural Settings
2.1 Geography of the Philippines and the Island of Leyte
(Fig. 1)
The Philippine Archipelago
Location: 4°23´ - 21°30´ N
116° - 126° E
N-S extent: 1850 km
E-W extent: 965 km
No. of islands: 7107
Land surface: ~300 000 km2
Inhabitants: ~65 mil in 1989
~86 mil in 2000 (estimate)
The Island of Leyte
Location: 9°55´ - 10°48´ N
124°17´ - 125°18´ E
N-S extent: ~214 km
E-W extent: ~25 km (smallest part)
Land surface: ~8000 km2
Inhabitants: ~1,5 mil
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
6
The study area is located on the western slopes of Mt. Pangasugan, western
Leyte, about 8 km north of the town of Baybay.
Fig. 1: The Island of Leyte, Change of Forest Cover, and Location of theStudy Site (according to Asio 1996, slightly altered)
Leyte
Natural Settings
7
2.2 Geology and Soils1
Parent material: basaltic-andesitic breccia
Soil type: haplic Andosol with rudic phase
(covered by forest between 370-520 m )
pH (KCl): low (3,5 - 4,7)
Nutrient status: good
Available phosphorus: low
Drainage: good
The Philippines are part of the ‘ring of fire`, a volcanic belt resulting from
the collision of the Philippine Plate with the Eurasian Plate that stretches
around the Pacific Ocean (Press & Siever 1994). Along these lines of
collision (convergence zones) volcanic activity extrudes basaltic and
andesitic lava which forms the geological basis.
The Island of Leyte is characterised by the Leyte Cordillera, which is part of
the Philippine Fault Line and which runs from north to south. Mt.
Pangasugan is slightly higher than the surrounding peaks with about 1150 m
elevation. The island shows the typical rugged relief of young land surfaces
(Small 1978). Occasional earthquakes and the existence of hot spots show
that the island is still volcanically active. Leyte is thus dominated by volcanic
parent material, although limestone outcrops occur. In the studied area, on
west exposed slopes between 370 and 520 m parent material is basaltic and
andesitic breccia. The soil resulting from this parent material is a haplic
Andosol with rudic phase (Zikeli 1998). It is best developed along slopes,
1 Soil Classification according to FAO/UNESCO (1974, 1988).
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
8
while it becomes rather shallow on ridges and lower slopes which lead into
ravines. Andosols are young volcanic soils. They are nutrient rich compared
to most other tropical soils, and show good physical properties for plant
growth (Richards 1996). Due to the content of Allophans (specific clay
minerals) Andosols are highly prone to landslides, especially when they are
soaked with water.
Despite the difficult accessibility and very steep slopes (30°-50°), these
soils are increasingly becoming the focus of shifting cultivation. This is
because of high unemployment rates and the poor economic situation of
many people.
At lower elevations (100 m ) soils covered by secondary vegetation have
been described as orthic Acrisols with inclusions of humic Acrisols, and
Dystric Nitosols (Asio 1996). Acrisols and Nitosols are also the result of
volcanic parent material, but are much more weathered and developed, and
thus less nutrient rich than Andosols. But they still offer good physical
properties for plant growth. These sites are easily accessible and used as
residential areas, for agriculture, coconut plantations, etc.
2.3 Climate of the Study Area
Average Rainfall: ~ 2600 mm
Annual Variation of Rainfall: 1775 - 3598 mm
Average Temperature: ~ 27° C
Typhoons: ~ 3 in 5 years (Kintanar 1984)
Dry Periods: ~ every three years
Natural Settings
9
The climate of western Leyte can be classified as ‘humid, rain evenly
distributed throughout the year with at most three dry months` (Kintanar
1984). Nevertheless, the amount of annual precipitation as well as its
distribution throughout the year is very variable. Although the mean values
of monthly rainfall do not show a dry season (Fig. 4), dry periods of several
months duration with less than 100 mm rainfall occurred (Table 2). Of the
272 months in which rainfall was recorded, 56 months (21 %) had less than
100 mm and22 months (8 %) even less than 50 mm of rainfall. According to
Walsh (1996), the latter must be classified as drought months. Dry periods
with a duration of three months or more occurred in intervals of ca. 3 years
(Langenberger & Reif 1998).
Another important climatic factor are tropical cyclones which are a common
feature of the area. Between 1948 and 1982 an average of three cyclones in
five years have been recorded (Kintanar 1984). Cyclones often occur as
typhoons, which result in heavy damage to the forest, like crown or stem
breaks or uprooting of whole trees (Walsh 1996). Heavy rainfalls connected
to most typhoons trigger numerous landslides which are a typical feature of
Mt. Pangasugan area.
Table 2: The Occurrence of Dry Periods with a Duration of three monthsor more since 1976 (Langenberger & Reif 1998)
Date Average monthly precipitation
February-May 1981 72,9 mmFebruary-May 1983 17,8 mm (May with 5,2 mm)March-June 1987 32,4 mm (April-June with an average of 12,9 mm)February-April 1990 56,9 mmJanuary-May 1992 36,5 mm (May with 4.8 mm)February-May 1995 79,4 mm (March with 102 mm)February-August 1998 68,4 mm (August last available data)
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
10
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
mmJa
nuar
y
Feb
ruar
y
Mar
ch
Apr
il
Mai
June
July
Aug
ust
Sept
embe
r
Oct
ober
Nov
embe
r
Dec
embe
rFig. 2: Climatic Diagram of ViSCA
ViSCA (7m) Temp: ~27° Rainfall: ~2600 mm (22 years of observation)
Results
11
3 Results
3.1 Methodology
49 plots of 100 m2 were analysed using a stratified sampling method. The
plots were arranged from ridge to lower slope and along the stream banks
of Kalbiga-a and Paghubasan Creek. All plots except some along the stream
banks were located in primary old growth forest. Due to easy access, the
original forest cover of the lower reaches of the streams was destroyed by
logging and kaingin making (shifting cultivation), and replaced by secondary
forest.
All flowering plants, ferns, and fern allies except epiphytes have been
recorded using a ‘nested quadrat design’ (Kent & Coker 1992). Plants
higher than 2.5 m were recorded on the whole plot (100 m2). Subplots of 25
m2 were used for the inventory of plants smaller than 2.5 m. Identification is
based on literature, and on the collections of the Philippine National
Herbarium (PNH) in Manila and the Rijksherbarium in Leiden (L), The
Netherlands. Apart from the support by the staff of the mentioned Herbaria,
Leonardo Co from Siliman University in Manila shared his great knowledge
on Philippine vegetation.
Six height strata were defined to gather data on the vertical structure of the
stands. Within each strata, vegetation coverage was estimated. The ‘ground
vegetation’ was represented in the strata up to 0.5 m (U1) and up to 2.5 m
(U2).. Four strata` (T1-T4) covered the plants taller than 2.5 m up to the
canopy. In addition, abundance and coverage for every species were
estimated (For results see Langenberger in preparation).
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
12
3.2 Plant Diversity
It has often been stated that Philippine forests are dominated by
dipterocarps. This is due to the huge biomass and the immense volumes of
exploitable timber which were mainly made up of dipterocarps - these
accounted for 70-90% of basal area on Mindanao for
example(Lamprecht 1989). When it comes to species diversity, however,
the Dipterocarpaceae family plays a minor role. Within the 49 plots
representing an area of 0.49 ha, 687 species representing 111 families and
286 genera could be identified. Appendix 2lists all plants that could be
identified to species level (plus some from outside the plots). A few genera
where no species could clearly be identified are also included. The
Rubiaceae family - followed by the Euphorbiaceae - contributed by far the
most genera (20 and 15 respectively) (Fig. 3) and species (35 and 32
respectively) (Fig. 4). The Dipterocarpaceae were represented by 6 genera
(seventh place together with the Annonaceae and Arecaceae (Palmae)) and
18 species (again seventh place together with the Annonaceae).
All plants have been classified into eight plant groups (Table 3, Fig. 5)
which were thought to be suitable to illustrate vegetation composition to the
non-scientist. Erect palms, usually included in the ‘life form’ of trees, have
been kept separately because they form a distinct feature of the forest.
Herbaceous plants, grasses and sedges, as well as ferns and fern allies were
assumed to reflect site conditions, and were therefore also treated as two
separate groups. Climbing and creeping plants were kept together, because
most creepers are juvenile climbers, waiting for the chance (light) to
eventually grow up into the canopy. Rattans are listed separately from the
climbers because they are an important non-timber forest product (NTFP)
and are especially affected by gathering.
Results
13
20
15
10
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0 10 20 30
Rubiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Leguminosae
Annonaceae
Araceae
Meliaceae
Sapindaceae
Urticaceae
Lauraceae
Arecaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Anacardiaceae
Zingiberaceae
Commelinaceae
Moraceae
Myrtaceae
Sterculiaceae
Araliaceae
Rutaceae
Vitaceae
Gesneriaceae
Fig 3: Number of Genera of the Most Common Families
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
14
Fig. 4: Number of Species of the Most Common Families
35
32
28
27
27
23
22
18
18
17
15
15
15
12
10
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
0 10 20 30 40
Rubiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Arecaceae
Meliaceae
Moraceae
Leguminosae
Urticaceae
Annonaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Lauraceae
Araceae
Sapindaceae
Myrtaceae
Clusiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Araliaceae
Rutaceae
Myristicaceae
Sapotaceae
Zingiberaceae
Vitaceae
Burseraceae
Results
15
Table 3: Plant Groups in the Study Plots
Plant Groups No. of Species %
Trees 398 57,9Shrubs 34 4,9Erect Palms 12 1,7Grasses & Sedges 4 0,6Herbs 67 9,8Ferns & Fern Allies 56 8,2Climbers & Creepers 100 14,6Climbing Palms (Rattan) 16 2,3
687 100,0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Fig. 5: Plant Groups in the Study Plots
%
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
16
3.3 Tree Species, Habitat, and Forest Types
Many species showed much clearer habitat preferences than expected. Four
categories of species were defined:
1. species restricted to or concentrated along the ridge,
2. species growing along the slope, avoiding the ridge and stream
banks,
3. species restricted to stream banks,
4. species occurring from the ridge to the lower slope but absent
from stream banks.
Species restricted to slopes preferred the middle slope. The upper and
lower slopes thus formed a sort of a transition zone between the three main
habitats:
1. ridge
2. slope
3. stream bank
Changes in plant composition took place in rather short intervals. Slopes are
often not longer than 100 m before ending in a ravine. This stresses the
importance of micro habitats.
Confined to the ridge were smaller trees like Olea borneensis, Melientha
suavis or Helicia loranthoides (Tarang)2. Big trees along the ridge were
Hopea plagata (Yakal saplungan) and Wallaceodendron celebicum
(Banuyo). The large dipterocarp emergent tree Shorea polysperma (Tangile)
2 Names in brackets are the common official names names according to Salvosa (1963).
Results
17
also showed its main distribution along the ridge at an elevation of 450 - 550
m.
Species mainly occurring on slopes were the undergrowth tree
Dolicholobium philippense, or the medium sized Knema glomerata
(Tambalau), Kibatalia blancoi (Pasnit) and Diospyros pyrrhocarpa
(Anang). The large dipterocarp Shorea squamata (Mayapis) was also
obviously thriving best on middle slopes.
The original forest cover along the lower reaches of the streams has been
replaced by secondary forest. The few big trees which can nowadays be
found are fast growing pioneers, and some remnants of the former lowland
forest, species such as Terminalia microcarpa (Kalumpit), Octomeles
sumatrana (Binuang) or Duabanga moluccana (Loktob). But mostly, the
streams at lower altitudes are covered by shrubs and small trees, for
example Sterculia stipulata, or Bridelia glauca (Balitahan). The
Euphorbiaceae family is also well represented with Neotrewia cumingii
(Apanang), Macaranga spp. and Mallotus spp.
Two common species which could not be observed along streams were the
medium sized Calophyllum blancoi (Bitanghol) and Diospyros blancoi
(Kamagong).
The following paragraphs try to give an overview of the forest types of the
area. This is based on the classification by Whitford (1911), whose
descriptions of ecological species perfectly fit the local conditions.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
18
Beach Forest
This forest type once covered the sandy beaches above high tide level. It
has been replaced by coconut stands and settlements. Scattered members
of this forest type can still be found along the coast, e.g. Calophyllum
inophyllum (Bitaog), Terminalia catappa (Talisay) or Pandanus spp.
Lauan-Hagakhak Type
Behind the Beach Forest, on the coastal plain and along the lower slopes of
the foothills up to perhaps 200 m, the Lauan-Hagakhak Forest Type very
likely dominated. Typical members of this type can still be found as isolated
individuals, like Dipterocarpus validus (Hagakhak), Pterocarpus indicus
(Narra), Cananga odorata (Ilang-Ilang), Koordersiodendron pinnatum
(Amugis), Terminalia nitens (Sakat), Dracontomelon dao (Dao), Toona
calantas (Kalantas), Erythrina subumbrans (Dapdap) or Octomeles
sumatrana (Binuang). Local loggers reported that in earlier times, tall
Dracontomelon dao (Dao) and Vitex parviflora (Molave) grew on the flood
plains and the slopes at lower elevations. Nowadays, this habitat is used for
rice fields and agriculture. This type has most likely gradually been replaced
by the Yakal-Lauan Type at about 200 to 300 m - depending on the relief.
Yakal-Lauan Type
The Yakal-Lauan forest is the first type which can still be studied ‘in situ’. It
is best developed along upper slopes and ridges between 300 and 400 m.
Common species are Hopea plagata (Yakal Saplungan), Shorea contorta
(White Lauan), Parashorea plicata (Bagtikan), Shorea guiso (Guijo),
Shorea squamata (Mayapis) and Maranthes corymbosa (Liusin).
Additionally, members of the Molave Type, a dry forest over limestone,
Results
19
can be found like Vitex parviflora (Molave), Heritiera sylvatica (Dungon),
Kingiodendron alternifolium (Batete) or Wallaceodendron celebicum
(Banuyo).
Tangile-Oak Type
Above 400 to 450 m and closer to the mountain with probably more rainfall,
the forest can be classified as Tangile-Oak Type. Shorea polysperma
(Tangile), Vatica mangachapui (Narig), Cinnamomum mercadoi
(Kaningag), Tristania decorticata (Malabayabas) and Lithocarpus spp. are
common. Exceptionally tall Shorea polysperma (Tangile) are a
characteristic feature of this forest. This type can be found up to about 600
m.
The elevation range between 600 m and about 800 m is extremely steep, and
only few small and stunted trees can survive there along the narrow ridges
which lead to the summit. At about 500 m Acer laurinum (Baliag) which is
described for montane rainforests (Balgooy 1998) or even the transition zone
to mossy forest (Weidelt et al. 1982) occurs. This is the result of a
phenomenon called the "telescope effect" (Van Steenis 1972, cited in Jacobs
1988). This means that forest formations which can be found at high
elevations on high mountains occur at much lower elevations on corres-
pondingly smaller mountains. This is the explanation for the occurrence of
Mossy Forest at the rather low elevation of about 800 to 900 m.. This forest
type, which also covers the summit, has not been assessed.
Nevertheless, this classification can not hide the fact that a clear delimitation
of forest types in the field is hardly possible. The transitions are fluid and
depend on changes in micro-habitat. The only exception to this is the
vegetation covering the very common land slides. In a later successional
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
20
stage they can still be recognised by the occurrence of typical pioneers, like
Casuarina rumphiana (Mountain Agoho) or Cyathea spp. (tree ferns). As
shifting cultivation at higher elevations and on steep slopes seems to have
been started only recently, its impact on vegetation and plant succession is
difficult to assess, but erosion rates must be extremely high.
It is obvious that water plays an important role in the local ecosystem,
although physical and chemical soil properties are favourable to plant
growth. Ridges and most lower slopes which tend to become steeper
before changing into ravines show very shallow soils and thus low water
retention capacity. Additionally, ridges are exposed to permanent winds
which increase water losses through evapotranspiration. This can explain the
occurrence of species described for rather dry habitats like the Molave
forest.
Appendix 3 lists most encountered trees and shrubs with their habitat.
3.4 Additional Observations Concerning the Management
of Native Tree Species
Growth Habit
Descriptions of the growth habit of native tree species are generally based
on observations in primary forests. Experience with growth characteristics
of native species in reforestations scarcely exists. It is important to realise
that the performance in man-made forests may differ strongly from that in
primary forests. While in primary forests many species show long, straight,
and thus technically valuable boles, the same species might develop a shrub-
like appearance in reforestations. Dipterocarps, for example, develop one
Results
21
vertical terminal shoot no matter what light conditions exist. Legume trees
(e.g. Kingiodendron alternifolium (Batete) or Afzelia rhomboidea
(Balayong)), however, often exhibit a shrub-like appearance in
reforestations. This will seriously influence the economic value of a future
forest and must therefore be controlled and managed.
Parasites and Pests
Not only exotic tree species are susceptible to pests and diseases. During a
mass fruiting of dipterocarps in 1997, Shorea squamata (Mayapis) showed
a massive fruit shedding caused by boring beetles which reduced the
available fruits for collection and propagation. In the ViSCA-gtz nursery,
dipterocarps could be observed being attacked by insects feeding on the
leaves (Shorea almon (Almon)), or destroying the terminal shoot (Shorea
contorta (White lauan)). Terminalia microcarpa, which thrives along the
streams at lower elevations, was reported to show serious losses when
planted in other habitats. Along a neighbouring ridge, the flowering plant and
root parasite Balanophora papuana was a common feature. It could not
be found in the study area and it was unclear to which species it was
connected. Nevertheless, it may also affect reforestations.
Human Impact
Although the study area showed little obvious human impact, the actual
influence of man on the ecosystem is difficult to evaluate. The lack of large
rattan despite the abundant occurrence of juveniles is obviously the
consequence of over-exploitation. Several encounters with hunters and their
prey showed that hunting pressure is high. Only very few birds of a small
number of species could be observed. Farmers reported that a larger
species diversity can nowadays only be found far from ViSCA. This
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
22
reduction of seed dispersers will change the distribution patterns of plant
populations in the long term, because many species are dispersed by animal.
The rotting of animal dispersed fruits on the trees observed in the area(e.g.
Melientha suavis) might be one sign of this. Also worth mentioning are the
effects of collecting seedlings for reforestation. Some stands were nearly
completely stripped of their regenerative potential of valuable species. This
practice will influence regeneration patterns in primary forests in the long run
and is only justified if reforestations aim at self regenerating, sustainable
forests.
Conclusions and Recommendations
23
4 Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1 Reforestation with Native Species
The Philippines are home to about 8 100 flowering plant species (DENR &
UNEP 1997), of which about 3000 are trees (De Guzman et. al. 1986). For
years reforestation activities focused on exotic species, while native forests
with their species adapted to local soil and climatic conditions continued to
disappear. As biodiversity awareness increased the idea of using native
species for reforestation evolved. But, "although native species are in
demand, information concerning their management is scarce" (Butterfield et.
al. 1994, p. 40). The little information available concentrates on the few
species used in plantations (e.g. Eucalyptus deglupta (Bagras) or Agathis
dammara (Almaciga); see Lamprecht 1989). Mixed stands with native
species are hardly studied yet. To manage such stands sustainably and
economically successfully, much more knowledge on the ecology of
species is needed. Appendix 4 suggests 25 tree species for inclusion in
reforestation activities, based on size, timber quality, and the use for river
bank stabilisation. Ecological aspects were not taken into account because
knowledge is too scarce. The following paragraphs try to name the most
urgent fields of future research and activities:
Identification of Species (and Local Varieties)
Proper identification of species is a prerequisite to analyse and compare
observations and experiences. Literature on Philippine species is not only
scarce and mostly outdated, for a lot of species a taxonomically proper
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
24
identification is not even possible yet. Therefore:
• detailed illustrated species descriptions with a special focus on
vegetative characters (‘field characters’) are needed
Habitat and Soil Requirements
Site requirements and distribution patterns of species must be analysed:
• geographical occurrence and elevation range
• preferred habitat (ridge, slope, dry or wet places, etc.)
• preferred parent material and soil type
• local climatic conditions under which the species can be found
Growth Characteristics and Growth Rates
Depending on habitat, every species shows its own characteristic growth
pattern during its life cycle. For a comparison of pioneer and climax forest
species Whitmore (1998). For their management in reforestations it is very
important to know this characteristic pattern. It is therefore necessary to
study the
• regeneration habit
• light requirements at different stages of development
• growth rate at different stages of development
• growth under competition from other species
• dependency on mycorrhizae
Conclusions and Recommendations
25
Ecological Importance
While the economic importance of species has been the focus of many
studies and publications (e.g. Brown 1941-46; Quisumbing 1978;
Soerianegara et al. 1994), the role species play within the forest ecosystem
has been neglected. Open questions for many species are:
• Who are the pollinators?
• How are seeds/fruits distributed?
• Which and how many animal species depend on the species as
food source, nesting place, etc.?
• What role does the species play in nutrient cycling?
Strategy
Funding for environmental studies is limited. Research priorities must
therefore be identified. It is suggested to develop an
evaluation system for species that is not only based on economic
criteria (timber value, etc.) but that also includes ecological aspects.
This is a difficult but nevertheless necessary task in order to be able to
proceed in a systematic way. The criteria needed to develop such a ranking
system can only be achieved by a team comprising the different interest
groups (e.g. farmers, traders, forest service, environmentalists, etc.). Based
on this evaluation, research should be focused on the most promising
species.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
26
A nation-wide, standardised concept of species trials is suggested to
study ecological as well as economic performance under defined
conditions, which allow the comparison of results and the definition of
the decisive parameters. Special attention should be given to locally
adapted populations of species.
Publication of Results
Last but not least, research must be published in a way that
a/ can be understood by all user groups, especially the non-scientists
b/ is accessible to everybody interested.
To establish man-made, ecologically stable forests is by no means an easy,
or short term task. Without a proper concept to improve knowledge
systematically, reforestations will always remain a game of chance.
References
27
5 References
Anonymous (1977): The Philippines recommends for dipterocarps 1977:I. Lumber. Philippine Council for Agriculture and ResourcesResearch, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 125 pp.
Asio, V.B. (1996): Characteristics, Weathering, Formation and Degradationof Soils from Volcanic Rocks in Leyte, Philippines. PhD Thesis.Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte, Heft 33. UniversitaetHohenheim, Stuttgart. 209 pp.
Baillie, I.C. (1996): Soils of the humid tropics. In: Richards, P.W (ed.) TheTropical Rainforest. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 256-286.
Balgooy, van M.M.J. (1998): Malesian Seed Plants Vol. 2 - Portraits ofTree Families. Rijksherbarium / Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, TheNetherlands. 307 pp.
Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964): Pflanzensoziologie. Springer Verlag, Wien. 865pp.
Brown, W.H. (1941-46): Useful Plants of the Philippines. 3 Vols. Bureauof Science, Manila, Philippines.
Butterfield, P.R. & Fisher, R.F. (1994): Untapped Potential: Native Speciesfor Reforestation. Journal of Forestry 92(6): 37-40.
De Guzman, E.D., Umali, R.M. & Sotalbo, E.D. (1986): Guide toPhilippine Flora and Fauna: Non-Dipterocarps. Natural ResourcesManagement Center, Ministry of Natural Resources & Univ. of thePhilippines. JMC Press, Quezon City, Philippines. 414 pp.
DENR & UNEP (1997): Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment andAction Plan. Bookmark, Makati City, Philippines. 298 pp.
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FAO/UNESCO (1974): Soil Map of the World 1:5 000 000. I. Legend.UNESCO, Paris.
FAO/UNESCO (1988): Soil Map of the World. Revised Legend. WorldSoil Resources Report 60. FAO, Rome.
Forest Management Bureau (1987): Forest Resources of Region 8.Philippine-German Forest Resources Inventory Project.
Heaney, L.R.; Heideman, P.D.; Rickart, E.A.; Utzurrum, R.B. & Klompen,J.S.H. (1989): Elevational zonation of mammals in the centralPhilippines. Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 259-80.
Jahn, G. (1982): Introduction. In: Jahn, G. (ed.) Application of VegetationScience to Forestry. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. Pp. 1-14.
Jacobs, M. (1988): The Tropical Rain Forest: A first encounter. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 295 pp.
Keenan, R.; Lamb, D.; Woldring, O.; Irvine, T. & Jensen, R. (1997):Restoration of plant biodiversity beneath tropical tree plantations inNorthern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 99: 117-31.
Kent, M. & Coker, P. (1992): Vegetation Description and Analysis.Belhaven Press, London. 363 pp.
Kintanar, R.L. (1984): Climate of the Philippines. Pagasa, September 1984.38 pp.
Lamb, D. (1997): Biodiversity Restoration by Plantation. Tropical ForestUpdate 7(2): 3-5.
Lamprecht, H. (1989): Silviculture in the Tropics. Deutsche Gesellschaftfuer Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn. 296 pp.
References
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Langenberger, G. & Reif, A. (1998): Vegetation Studies on the Foothills ofMt. Pangasugan, Leyte, Philippines, Part II: Forest Structure and LifeForms. Paper presented during the’ International Conference onApplied Tropical Ecology`, 8-10 September 1998, ViSCA, Leyte,Philippines.Proceedings in preperation
Langenberger, G. (1997): Vegetation Studies on the Foothills of Mt.Pangasugan, Leyte, Philippines: Preliminary results on the Occurrenceof Woody Taxa. Paper presented during the ‘InternationalConference on Reforestation with Philippine Species’ held inTacloban, Leyte, March 3-6, 1997.
Lemmens, R.H.M.J.; Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (1995): PlantResources of South-East Asia No 5 (2). Timber trees: Minorcommercial timbers. Bogor, Indonesia. 655 pp.
Merrill, E.D. (1923-26): An Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants.Vol. 1-4. Manila, Bureau of Printing.
Mueller-Dombois, D. & Ellenberg, H. (1974): Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 547 pp.
Press, R. & Siever, R. (1994): Understanding Earth. Freeman andCompany, New York, 593 pp.
Quisumbing, E. (1978): Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. KathaPublishing Co., Inc., Quezon City, Philippines. 1262 pp.
Richards, P.W. (1996): The Tropical Rainforest. Cambridge UniversityPress. 575 pp.
Salvosa, F.M. (1963): Lexicon of Philippine Trees. Forest ProductResearch Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines. 136 pp.
Schulz, J.P. (1960): Ecological Studies on Rain Forest in NorthernSurinam. North Holland, Amsterdam. 267 pp.
Small, R.J. (1978): The Study of Landforms. Cambridge Univ. Press,
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London. 502 pp. Soerianegara, I. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (1994):Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5 (1). Timber trees: Majorcommercial timbers. Bogor, Indonesia. 610 pp.
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Walsh, R.P.D. (1996): Climate. In: Richards, P.W. (ed.) The TropicalRainforest. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 159-205.
Walter, H. (1990): Vegetation und Klimazonen. Verlag Eugen Ulmer,Stuttgart. 382 pp.
Weidelt, H.J. & Banaag, V.S. (1982): Aspects of Management andSilviculture of Philippine Dipterocarp Forests. Philippine-GermanRain Forest Development Project, Eschborn, Germany. 302 pp.
Whitford, H.N. (1911): The Forests of the Philippines Part I: Forest Typesand Products. Bulletin N. 10, Dept. of the Interior, Bureau ofForestry, Manila, The Philippines. 94 pp.
Whitmore, T.C. (1985): Tropical rain forests of the Far East. Correctedreprint of the 1984 edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 352 pp.
Whitmore, T.C. (1998): An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford. 282 pp.
Zikeli, S. (1998): Nutrient status and nutrient cycles of the tropicalrainforest, Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte, Philippines. Diploma thesis atthe Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany. 101 pp.
Zimmermann, M.H. & Brown, C.L. (1971): Trees Structure and Function.Springer Verlag, New York. 336 pp.
Appendix
31
Appendices
Appendix 1: Glossary
DA Department of Agriculture
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Epiphyte A plant growing on other plants without being
parasitic.
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Technische
Zusammenarbeit GmbH
Habitat The environmental conditions a species needs to
thrive.
Herbarium A collection of dried plants for documentation and
research, as well as the building or institute the
collection is located.
Life Form The growth strategy a species developed to compete
in the ecosystem, e.g. tree, shrub, liana, etc.
NEDA National Economic Development Authority
NTFP Non Timber Forest Products, e.g. rattan, herbs, etc.
Species Trial Systematic planting of species to test and compare
their performance under defined environmental
conditions.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
32
Stratified
Sampling Method
A method to collect information where plot size
depends on plant size. Here: all plants taller than 2.5 m
were studied in 10 m x 10 m plots, while smaller plants
were studied on 5 m x 5 m plots located within the
bigger one.
Succession The vegetational stages with their different plantsdeveloping after the new colonization (e.g. after alandslide), or the recolonisation of an area (e.g. afterclear cutting).
Taxonomy Science of classifying species.
TÖB Tropenökologisches Begleitprogramm = SupportProgram for Tropical Ecology
ViSCA Visayas State College of Agriculture
Appendix
33
Appendix 2: Species Encountered in the Study Area
Family Species
Aceraceae Acer laurinum Hassk.
Actinidiaceae Saurauia samarensis Merr.
Alangiaceae Alangium longiflorum Merr.
Amaranthaceae Deeringia polysperma (Roxb.) Moq.
Anacardiaceae Dracontomelon dao (Blco) Merr. & Rolfe
Anacardiaceae Dracontomelon edule (Blco.) Skeels
Anacardiaceae Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blco) Merr.
Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima Blco.
Anacardiaceae Rhus taitensis Guill.
Anacardiaceae Semecarpus cuneiformis Blco.
Annonaceae Alphonsea arborea (Blanco) Merr.
Annonaceae Anaxagorea javanica Bl.
Annonaceae Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thoms.
Annonaceae Goniothalamus elmeri Merr.
Annonaceae Meiogyne virgata (Bl.) Miq.
Annonaceae Papualthia cf. lanceolata (Vid.) Merr.
Annonaceae Popowia pisocarpa (Bl.) Endl.
Apocynaceae Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex. G. Don
Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.
Apocynaceae Kibatalia blancoi (Rolfe) Merr.
Apocynaceae Lepiniopsis ternatensis Val.
Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Poir.
Apocynaceae Voacanga globosa (Blco.) Merr.
Araceae Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson
Araceae Pothos cylindricus Presl
Araceae Raphidophora korthalasii Schott
Araliaceae Arthrophyllum ahernianum Merr.
Araliaceae Osmoxylon trilobatum (Merr.) Philipson
Araliaceae Polyscias nodosa (Bl.) Seem.
Arecaceae Calamus spp.
Arecaceae Caryota cf. mitis Lour.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
34
Family Species
Arecaceae Daemonorops cf. mollis (Blco.) Merr.
Arecaceae Korthalsia laciniosa Mart.
Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia philippinensis Warb.
Asclepiadaceae Hoya multiflora Bl.
Aspidiaceae Ctenitis cf. silvatica Holttum
Aspidiaceae Didymochlaena cf. truncatula (Sw.) J. Sm.
Aspidiaceae Tectaria crenata Cav.
Aspleniaceae Asplenium nidus L.
Aspleniaceae Asplenium tenerum Forst.
Asteraceae Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham.
Athyriaceae Athyrium asperum (Bl.) Milde
Athyriaceae Diplazium esculentum (Retz.)Sw.
Balanophoraceae Balanophora papuana Schltr.
Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent.
Bignoniaceae Radermachera pinnata (Blco.) Seem.
Burseraceae Canarium asperum Benth.
Burseraceae Canarium denticulatum Bl.
Burseraceae Canarium euryphyllum Perk.
Burseraceae Canarium gracile Engl.
Burseraceae Canarium hirsutum Willd.
Burseraceae Dacryodes rostrata (Bl.) H. J. Lam
Caprifoliaceae Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Bl.
Casuarinaceae Casuarina rumphiana Miq.
Celastraceae Bhesa paniculata Arn.
Celastraceae Euonymus cochinchinensis Pierre
Celastraceae Euonymus javanicus Bl.
Celastraceae Lophopetalum javanicum (Zoll.) Turcz.
Chloranthaceae Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc.
Chloranthaceae Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nakai
Chrysobalanaceae Maranthes corymbosa Bl.
Clusiaceae Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr.
Clusiaceae Calophyllum soulattri Burm. f.
Clusiaceae Cratoxylum formosum Benth. & Hook. f. ex Dyer
Combretaceae Terminalia microcarpa Decne.
Appendix
35
Family Species
Combretaceae Terminalia nitens Presl.
Commelinaceae Floscope scandens Lour.
Commelinaceae Forrestia hispida Less. & A. Rich.
Commelinaceae Pollia sorzogoniensis (E. Meyer) Steud.
Commelinaceae Pollia thyrsiflora (Bl.) Steud.
Commelinaceae Rhopalephora cf. vitiensis (Seem.) Fader
Connaracaceae Connarus semedicanthus Jack
Connaraceae Agelaea borneensis (Hook. f.) Merr.
Connaraceae Connarus culionensis Merr.
Connaraceae Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz
Crypteroniaceae Crypteronia cumingii (Planch.) Planch. ex Endl.
Cunoniaceae Weinmannia sp.
Datiscaceae Octomeles sumatrana Miq.
Davalliaceae Davallia solida (G. Forst.) Sw.
Davalliaceae Davallia trichomanoides Bl.
Dilleniaceae Dillenia megalantha Merr.
Dilleniaceae Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe
Dilleniaceae Tetracera fagifolia Bl.
Dipterocarpaceae Parashorea malaanonan (Blco.) Merr.
Dipterocarpaceae Anisoptera thurifera Foxw.
Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus gracilis Bl.
Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus validus Bl.
Dipterocarpaceae Hopea acuminata Merr.
Dipterocarpaceae Hopea malibato Foxw. ex Elm.
Dipterocarpaceae Hopea philippinensis Dyer
Dipterocarpaceae Hopea plagata (Blco.) Vid.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea almon Foxw.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea assamica Dyer forma philippinensis (Brandis) Sym.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea astylosa Foxw.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea contorta Vid.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea falciferoides Foxw.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea guiso (Blco) Bl.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea hopeifolia (Heim) Sym.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea polysperma (Blco) Merr.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
36
Family Species
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea squamata (Turcz.) Dyer
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica mangachapui Blco.
Ebenaceae Diospyros blancoi A. DC.
Ebenaceae Diospyros cf. nitida Merr. or D. cf. wrayi King et Gamble
Ebenaceae Diospyros curranii Merr.
Ebenaceae Diospyros multibracteata Merr.
Ebenaceae Diospyros pilosanthera Blco.
Ebenaceae Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Miq.
Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus triflora Roxb. var. triflora
Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus cumingii Turcz.
Euphorbiaceae Acalypha amentacea Roxb.
Euphorbiaceae Antidesma digitaliforme Tul.
Euphorbiaceae Antidesma nitidum Tul.
Euphorbiaceae Antidesma tomentosum Bl.
Euphorbiaceae Aporosa benthamiana Hook. f.
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea tetrandra (Baill.) Müll. Arg.
Euphorbiaceae Bridelia glauca Bl.
Euphorbiaceae Cansjera rheedii J.F. Gmelin
Euphorbiaceae Claoxylon brachyandrum Pax & K. Hoffm.
Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus cf. glaber Airy Shaw
Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Müll. Arg.
Euphorbiaceae Codiaeum luzonicum Merr.
Euphorbiaceae Croton cascarilloides Raeusch.
Euphorbiaceae Drypetes bordenii (Merr.) Pax et Hoffm.
Euphorbiaceae Drypetes cf. megacarpa (Merr.) Pax & K. Hoffm.
Euphorbiaceae Glochidion rubrum Bl.
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga caudatifolia Elm.
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga grandifolia(Blcol.) Merr.
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hispida (Bl.) Muell.-Arg.
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell.-Arg.
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus cf. paniculatus (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus floribundus (Bl.) Muell.-Arg.
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus lackeyi Elm.
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.
Appendix
37
Family Species
Euphorbiaceae Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw.) Reichb. f. & Zoll.
Euphorbiaceae Neotrewia cumingii (Muell.-Arg.) Pax & Hoffm.
Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus leytensis Elm.
Euphorbiaceae Suregada glomerulata (Hassk.) Jones
Fagaceae Lithocarpus buddii (Merr.) A. Camus
Fagaceae Lithocarpus caudatifolia (Merr.) Rehd.
Fagaceae Lithocarpus coopertus (Blco) Rehd.
Flacourtiaceae Casearia cf. mindanaensis Merr.
Flacourtiaceae Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. var. gelonioides (Bl.) Sleum.
Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia cf ramontchi L´Herit.
Flacourtiaceae Osmelia philippina (Turcz.) Benth.
Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica L.
Gesneriaceae Monophyllaea merrilliana Kranzl.
Gesneriaceae Pentaphragma grandiflorum
Gesneriaceae Rhynchoglossum obliquum Bl.
Gnetaceae Gnetum gnemon L. var. gnemon
Gnetaceae Gnetum latifolium Bl.
Hamamelidaceae Sycopsis dunnii Hemsl.
Hernandiaceae Illigera luzoniensis (Presl) Merr.
Hymenophyllaceae Trichomanes javanicum Bl.
Icacinaceae Gomphandra cumingiana (Miers) F.-Vill.
Icacinaceae Gonocaryum calleryanum (Baill.) Becc.
Icacinaceae Miquelia celebica Bl.
Icacinaceae Platea excelsa Bl. var. borneensis (Heine) Sleum.
Ixonanthaceae Ixonanthes petiolaris Bl.
Juglandaceae Engelhardia serrata Bl.
Labiatae Cyrtandra angularis Elm.
Labiatae Cyrtandra glaucescens Kränzl.
Lamiaceae Gomphostemma javanicum (Bl.) Bth.
Lauraceae Actinodaphne apoensis Merr.
Lauraceae Actinodaphne bicolor (Elm.) Merr.
Lauraceae Caryodaphnopsis tonkinensis (Lec.) Shaw
Lauraceae Cinnamomum mercadoi Vid.
Lauraceae Endiandra coriacea Merr.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
38
Family Species
Lauraceae Litsea garciae Vid.
Lauraceae Litsea leytensis Merr.
Lauraceae Neolitsea cf. vidallii Merr./Neolitsea cf villosa (Bl.) Merr.
Leeaceae Leea cf. manillensis Walp.
Leeaceae Leea guineensis G. Don
Leeaceae Leea quadrifida Merr.
Leguminosae Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr.
Leguminosae Afzelia rhomboidea (Blco.) Vid.
Leguminosae Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl. ex Miq.
Leguminosae Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen
Leguminosae Archidendron pauciflorum (Benth.) Nielsen
Leguminosae Archidendron scutiferum (Blco.) I.C. Nielsen
Leguminosae Bauhinia integrifolia Roxb. ssp. cumingiana (Benth.) K. & S.S. Larsen
Leguminosae Dalbergia cf. cumingiana Benth. or cf. mimosella (Blco) Prain
Leguminosae Desmodium laxum DC.
Leguminosae Euchresta horsfieldii (Lesch.) Benn.
Leguminosae Kingiodendron alternifolium (Elm.) Merr. & Rolfe
Leguminosae Ormosia calavensis Azaola
Leguminosae Pithecelobium subacutum (Blco.) Benth.
Leguminosae Pterocarpus indicus Willd.
Leguminosae Spatholobus maingayi Prain ex. King
Leguminosae Strongylodon pulcher C.B. Rob.
Leguminosae Wallaceodendron celebicum Koord.
Lindsaeaceae Lindsaea lucida Bl. ssp. lucida
Lindsaeaceae Tapeinidium pinnatum (Cav.) C.Chr.
Loganiaceae Fagraea auriculata Jack
Loganiaceae Fagraea racemosa Jack ex Wall.
Loganiaceae Strychnos luzoniensis Elm.
Lomariopsidaceae Bolbitis cf. guoyana (Gaudich.) Ching
Lomariopsidaceae Bolbitis heteroclita (Pr.) Ching
Lomariopsidaceae Lomogramma cf copelandii Holttum
Lomariopsidaceae Teratophyllum arthropteroides (Christ) Holttum
Lomariopsidaceae Teratophyllum cf articulatum (J. Sm. ex Fée) Mett.
Magnoliaceae Magnolia liliifera (L.) Baill. var. angatensis
Appendix
39
Family Species
Malpighiaceae Hiptage sp.
Marantaceae Donax cannaeformis (Forst. f.) K. Schum.
Marattiaceae Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm.
Marattiaceae Marattia pellucida Presl.
Melastomataceae Memecylon paniculatum Jack
Meliaceae Aglaia argentea Bl.
Meliaceae Aglaia costata Merr.
Meliaceae Aglaia elliptica Bl.
Meliaceae Aglaia luzoniensis (Vid.) Merr. & Rolfe
Meliaceae Aphanamixis polystachia (Wall.) R.N. Parker
Meliaceae Chisocheton ceramicus (Miq.) C. DC.)
Meliaceae Chisocheton cumingianus (C. DC.) Harms
Meliaceae Chisocheton pentandrus (Blco) Merr.
Meliaceae Dysoxylum arborescens (Blume) Miq.
Meliaceae Dysoxylum cumingianum C. DC.
Meliaceae Reinwardtiodendron humile (Hassk.) Mabb.
Meliaceae Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe
Meliaceae Vavaea amicorum Benth.
Meliaceae Walsura cf. pinnata Hassk.
Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum Colebr.
Monimiaceae Matthaea pubescens Merr.
Moraceae Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr.
Moraceae Artocarpus elastica Reinw. ex Bl.
Moraceae Ficus balete Merr.
Moraceae Ficus benjamina L.
Moraceae Ficus cumingii Miq. var. angustissima (Merr.) Corner
Moraceae Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Bl.
Moraceae Ficus heteropoda Miq.
Moraceae Ficus odorata (Blco.) Merr.
Moraceae Ficus pedunculosa Miq.
Moraceae Ficus punctata Thunb.
Moraceae Ficus ribes Reinw. ex Bl.
Moraceae Ficus subulata Bl.
Moraceae Ficus ulmifolia Lam.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
40
Family Species
Moraceae Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner
Moraceae Streblus ilicifolia (Vid.) Corner
Moraceae Streblus macrophyllus Bl.
Myristicaceae Endocomia macrocoma (Miq.) W.J.J. de Wilde
subsp. prainii (King) W.J.J.de Wilde
Myristicaceae Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook. f. & Th) Warb. var. paniculata (A.
DC.) R. Schouten
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia cf. megacarpa Merr.
Myristicaceae Knema glomerata (Blco) Merr.
Myristicaceae Knema stellata Merr.
Myristicaceae Myristica cf. frugifera W. J. J. de Wilde
Myristicaceae Myristica simiarum A. DC cf subsp. simiarum
Myrsinaceae Ardisia pardelina Mez.
Myrsinaceae Ardisia squamulosa Presl
Myrsinaceae Discocalyx sp.
Myrsinaceae Maesa denticulata Mez
Myrtaceae Acmena acuminatissima (Bl.) Merr. & Perry
Myrtaceae Syzygium cf. densinervum (Merr.) Merr.
Myrtaceae Syzygium cf. xanthophyllum (C.B. Rob.) Merr.
Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeel
Myrtaceae Tristania decorticata Merr.
Myrtaceae Tristania micrantha Merr.
Myrtaceae Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves
Olacaceae Erythropalum scandens Bl.
Olacaceae Strombosia philippinensis (Baill.) Rolfe
Oleaceae Olea borneensis Boerl.
Opiliaceae Champereia manillana (Bl.) Merr.
Opiliaceae Melientha suavis Pierre ssp. suavis
Orchidaceae Acanthephippium sp.
Orchidaceae Acanthephippium sp.
Orchidaceae Aphyllorchis sp.
Orchidaceae Bulbophyllum sp.
Orchidaceae Calanthe triplicata (Willem.) Ames
Orchidaceae Cymbidium aliciae Quis.
Appendix
41
Family Species
Orchidaceae Eulophia zollingeri Kurz
Orchidaceae Grammatophyllum scriptum (L.) Bl.
Orchidaceae Habenaria sp.
Orchidaceae Lepidogyne longifolia (Bl.) Bl.
Orchidaceae Malaxis sp.
Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica (Rchb.f.) Sweet
Orchidaceae Trichoglottis rosea (Lindl.) Ames
Osmundaceae Osmunda banksiaefolia (Pr.) Kuhn
Pandanaceae Freycinetia cf. philippinensis Hemsl.
Pandanaceae Freycinetia cumingiana Gaudich.
Pandanaceae Freycinetia membranifolia Elm.
Pandanaceae Freycinetia multiflora Merr.
Pandanaceae Freycinetia vidalii Hemsl.
Piperaceae Piper abbreviatum Opiz
Piperaceae Piper halconense C. CD.
Piperaceae Piper toppingii C. CD.
Piperaceae Piper viminale Opiz
Podocarpaceae Podocarpus rumphii Bl.
Polygalaceae Polygala venenosa Juss. ex Poir.
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Bl.) Dietr.
Polypodiaceae Drynaria quercifolia L. (J. Sm)
Polypodiaceae Microsorum cf. longissimum
Polypodiaceae Microsorum plukenetii (Presl) M.G. Price
Polypodiaceae Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.
Polypodiaceae Microsorum scolopendria (Burm. f.) Copel.
Proteaceae Helicia graciliflora Merr.
Proteaceae Helicia loranthoides Presl.
Proteaceae Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R. Br. ex Wall.
Pteridaceae Pteris cf. pellucida Presl
Pteridaceae Pteris ensiformis Burm.
Pteridaceae Pteris longipinnula Wall.
Ranunculaceae Clematis javana DC.
Rhamnaceae Ventilago dichotoma (Blco.) Merr.
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus angustifolius (Miq.) Hatusima ex Steenis
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
42
Family Species
Rhizophoraceae Gynotroches axillaris Bl.
Rosaceae Prunus arborea (Bl.) Kalkm. var. arborea
Rosaceae Prunus cf. fragrans (Elm.) Kalkm.
Rosaceae Prunus grisea (Bl,) Kalkm. var. grisea
Rosaceae Rubus fraxinifolius Poiret
Rubiaceae Boholia nematostylis Merr.
Rubiaceae Canthium gynochthodes Baill.
Rubiaceae Diodia ocynifolia (Willd.) Brem.
Rubiaceae Diplospora cf. fasciculiflora Elm.
Rubiaceae Dolicholobium philippinense Trenteuse
Rubiaceae Greeniopsis multiflora (Elm.) Merr.
Rubiaceae Hedyotis baruensis (Miq.) Val. ex Merr.
Rubiaceae Hypobathrum purpureum (Elm.) Merr.
Rubiaceae Ixora bartlingii Elm.
Rubiaceae Ixora cf. cumingiana Vidal
Rubiaceae Ixora cf. macrophylla Bartl.
Rubiaceae Ixora longistipula Merr.
Rubiaceae Ixora salicifolia (Bl.) DC.
Rubiaceae Lasianthus cf. obliquinerva Merr.
Rubiaceae Morinda bracteata Roxb.
Rubiaceae Mussaenda vidallii Elm.
Rubiaceae Mycetia javanica (Bl.) Korth.
Rubiaceae Nauclea subdita (Korth.) Stend.
Rubiaceae Neonauclea formicaria (Elm.) Merr.
Rubiaceae Neonauclea lanceolata (Bl.) Merr. subsp. gracilis (Vidal) Ridsdale
Rubiaceae Praravinia cf. mindanensis (Elm.) Brem.
Rubiaceae Psychotria cf. ixoroides Berll ex Bl. - Namen prüfen
Rubiaceae Psychotria membranifolia Bartl.
Rubiaceae Tarenna cumingiana (Vid.) Elm.
Rubiaceae Tarrenoidea wallichii (Hook. f.) Tirr. Sastra - prüfen
Rubiaceae Timonius arboreus Merr.
Rubiaceae Uncaria cf. perrottetii (A. Rich.) Merr.
Rubiaceae Uncaria longiflora (Poir.) Merr.
Rubiaceae Uncaria philippinensis Elm.
Appendix
43
Family Species
Rubiaceae Wendlandia luzoniensis DC.
Rubiaceae Xanthophytum fruticulosum Reinw. ex Bl.
Rutaceae Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merrill
Rutaceae Lunasia amara Blco.
Rutaceae Micromelum compressum (Blco.) Merr.
Rutaceae Severinia disticha (Blco) Merr.
Sapindaceae Allophyllus cobbe (L.) Raeuschel
Sapindaceae Cubilia cubili (Blco.) Adelh.
Sapindaceae Dictyoneura acuminata Bl. ssp. acuminata
Sapindaceae Dimocarpus fumatus (Bl.) Leenhouts ssp. philippinensis Leenhouts
Sapindaceae Euphorianthus obtusatus Radlk. ex Koord.
Sapindaceae Ganophyllum falcatum Bl.
Sapindaceae Guioa cf. diplopetala or cf. koelratheri
Sapindaceae Harpullia cupanioides Roxb.
Sapindaceae Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh.
Sapindaceae Paranephelium cf. xestophyllum Miq.
Sapindaceae Pometia pinnata Forst.
Sapotaceae Palaquium philippense (Perr.) C. B. Rob.
Sapotaceae Planchonella mindanaensis Clemens
Sapotaceae Pouteria firma (Miq.) Baehni
Saxifragaceae Polyosma integrifolia Bl.
Saxifragaceae Dichroa philippinensis Schltr.
Schizaeaceae Lygodium auriculatum (Willd.) Alst. et Holtt.
Schizaeaceae Lygodium circinatum (Burm.) Sw.
Simaroubaceae Picrasma javanica Bl.
Solanaceae Solanum anisophyllum Elm.
Solanaceae Solanum ferox L.
Sonneratiaceae Duabanga moluccana Bl.
Sterculiaceae Heritiera sylvatica Vidal
Sterculiaceae Kleinhovia hospida L.
Sterculiaceae Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blco.) Merr.
Sterculiaceae Pterospermum diversifolium Bl.
Sterculiaceae Pterospermum elongatum Korth.
Sterculiaceae Pterospermum obliquum Blco.
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
44
Family Species
Sterculiaceae Sterculia multistipularis Elm.
Sterculiaceae Sterculia oblongata R. Br.
Sterculiaceae Sterculia philippinensis Merr.
Sterculiaceae Sterculia stipulata Korth. var. jagorii (Warb.) Tantra
Symplocaceae Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore var. cochinchinensis
Taccaceae Tacca palmata Bl.
Taenitidaceae Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw.
Tectaria Group Cyclopeltis crenata (Feé) C. Chr.
Tectaria Group Pleocnemia cf. presliana Holttum
Tectaria Group Pleocnemia irregularis (Presl) Holttum
Theaceae Eurya acuminata DC.
Theaceae Ternstroemia philippinensis Merr. var. philippinensis
Thelypteridaceae Pneumatopteris laevis (Mett.) Holttum
Thelypteridaceae Pronephrium granulosum (Presl) Holtt.
Thelypteridaceae Pronephrium x xiphioides (Christ) Holttum
Thelypteridaceae Pseudophaegopteris cf. paludosa
Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria cumingiana (Decn) Ridl.
Thymelaeaceae Phaleria perrottetiana (Dcne) F.-Vill.
Tiliaceae Colona serratifolia Cav.
Tiliaceae Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz.
Ulmaceae Gironniera celtidifolia Gaudich.
Ulmaceae Trema orientalis (L.) Bl.
Urticaceae Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd.
Urticaceae Maoutia setosa Wedd.
Urticaceae Villebrunea rubescens (Bl.) Bl.
Urticaceae Villebrunea trinerva Wedd.
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum villosum Bl.
Verbenaceae Premna odorata Blco.
Verbenaceae Teijsmanniodendron pteropodium (Miq.) Bakh.
Verbenaceae Vitex parviflora Juss.
Verbenaceae Vitex turczaninowii Merr.
Appendix
45
Appendix 3: Trees and Shrubs on the Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan
Abbreviations :
R. = Ridge U. Sl. = Upper Slope
M. Sl. = Middle Slope L. Sl. = Lower Slope
R. B. = River Bank S. = Succession
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Acalypha amentacea Roxb. Euphorbiaceae x x x
Acer laurinum Hassk. Aceraceae x x x
Acmena acuminatissima (Bl.) Merr. & Perry Myrtaceae x x x
Actinodaphne apoensis Merr. Lauraceae x x x
Aglaia argentea Bl. Meliaceae x x
Aglaia costata Merr. Meliaceae x x
Aglaia luzoniensis Merr. & Rolfe Meliaceae x
Alangium longiflorum Merr. Alangiaceae x x
Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl. ex Miq. Leguminosae x
Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don Apocynaceae x x x x
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae x x x
Anisoptera thurifera Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x
Antidesma digitaliforme Tul. Euphorbiaceae x x x x
Antidesma nitidum Tul. Euphorbiaceae x
Antidesma tomentosum Bl. Euphorbiaceae x
Aphanamixis polystachia (Wall.) R.N. Parker Meliaceae x
Aporosa benthamiana Hook. f. Euphorbiaceae x x x
Aquilaria cumingiana (Decn.) Ridl. Thymelaeaceae x x x x x
Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen Leguminosae x x
Archidendron pauciflorum (Benth.) Nielsen Leguminosae x
Ardisia pardelina Mez. Myrsinaceae x x
Ardisia squamulosa Presl Myrsinaceae x x x
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
46
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Arthrophyllum ahernianum Merr. Araliaceae x x x
Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr. Moraceae x x x
Artocarpus elastica Reinw. ex Bl. Moraceae x
Baccaurea tetrandra (Baill.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x x
Bhesa paniculata Arn. Celastraceae x x
Bridelia glauca Bl. Euphorbiaceae x x
Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr. Clusiaceae x x x x
Calophyllum soulattri Burm. f. Clusiaceae x x
Canarium asperum Benth. Burseraceae x x x x
Canarium denticulatum Bl. Burseraceae x x x
Canarium euryphyllum Perk. Burseraceae x x x
Canarium gracileEngl. Burseraceae x
Canarium hirsutum Willd. Burseraceae x
Canthium gynochthodes Baill. Rubiaceae x
Caryodaphnopsis tonkinensis (Lec.) Shaw Lauraceae x
Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. Flacourtiaceae x
Chisocheton ceramicus (Miq.) C. DC. Meliaceae x x
Chisocheton cumingianus (C. DC.) Harms Meliaceae x x x
Chisocheton pentandrus (Blco.) Merr. Meliaceae x x
Cinnamomum mercadoi Vid. Lauraceae x x x
Claoxylon brachyandrum Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae x
Clausena anisum-olens (Blco.) Merr. Rutaceae x x x x
Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x x
Clerodendrum villosum Bl. Verbenaceae x
Codiaeum luzonicum Merr. Euphorbiaceae x x x x
Cratoxylum formosum Benth. & Hook. f. ex
Dyer
Clusiaceae x x
Croton cascarilloides Raeusch. Euphorbiaceae x
Crypteronia cumingii (Planch.) Endl. Crypteroniaceae x
Cubilia cubili (Blco.) Adelh. Sapindaceae x x x x
Appendix
47
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Cypholophus moluccanus (Bl.) Miq. Urticaceae x x
Dacryodes rostrata (Bl.) H.J. Lam Burseraceae x x x x
Dalbergia cumingiana Benth. Leguminosae x
Dictyoneura acuminata Bl. Sapindaceae x
Dimocarpus fumatus (Bl.) Leenh. ssp.
philippinensis Leenh.
Sapindaceae x
Diospyros multibracteata Merr. Ebenaceae x x x
Diospyros blancoi A. DC. Ebenaceae x x x x
Diospyros pilosanthera Blco. Ebenaceae x
Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Miq. Ebenaceae x x x
Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz. Tiliaceae x x
Dipterocarpus validus Bl. Dipterocarpaceae x x x
Dolicholobium philippense Trenteuse Rubiaceae x x x
Dracontomelon dao (Blco.) Merr. & Rolfe Anacardiaceae x
Dracontomelon edule (Blco.) Skeels Anacardiaceae x
Drypetes bordenii (Merr.) Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae x
Duabanga moluccana Bl. Sonneratiaceae x
Dysoxylum arborescens (Bl.) Miq. Meliaceae x x x
Dysoxylum cumingianum C. DC. Meliaceae x x
Elaeocarpus cumingii Turcz. Elaeocarpaceae x
Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz Connaraceae x x x x
Endiandra coriacea Merr. Lauraceae x
Endocomia macrocoma (Miq.) W.J.J. de
Wilde
Myristicaceae x
Engelhardia serrata Bl. Juglandaceae x
Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. Leguminosae x x
Euonymus cochinchinensis Pierre Celastraceae x
Euonymus javanicus Bl. Celastraceae x x
Euphorianthus obtusatus Radlk. ex Koord. Sapindaceae x
Eurya acuminata DC. Theaceae x
Ficus aurita Bl. Moraceae x
Ficus benjamina L. Moraceae x
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
48
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Ficus cumingii var. angustissima (Merr.)
Corner
Moraceae x
Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Bl. Moraceae x x
Ficus heteropoda Miq. Moraceae x
Ficus odorata (Blco.) Merr. Moraceae x x
Ficus pedunculosa Miq. Moraceae x
Ficus pseudopalma Blco. Moraceae x
Ficus ribes Reinw. ex Bl. Moraceae x x x
Ficus ruficaulis Merr. Moraceae x
Ficus ulmifolia Lam. Moraceae x
Ganophyllum falcatum Bl. Sapindaceae x x x
Gironniera celtidifolia Gaudich. Ulmaceae x x
Gnetum gnemon L. var. gnemon Gnetaceae x
Gomphandra cumingiana (Miers) F.-Vill. Icacinaceae x
Gonocaryum calleryanum (Baill.) Becc. Icacinaceae x x
Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook. f & Th.)
Warb. var. paniculata (A. DC.) R. Schouten
Myristicaceae x
Gynotroches axillaris Bl. Rhizophoraceae x x x
Harpullia cupanioides Roxb. Sapindaceae x
Helicia graciliflora Merr. Proteaceae x x
Helicia loranthoides Presl Proteaceae x
Helicia robusta Roxb. Proteaceae x
Heritiera sylvatica S. Vidal Sterculiaceae x x
Homalanthus populneus (Geisel) Pax Euphorbiaceae x
Hopea acuminata Merr. Dipterocarpaceae x x
Hopea malibato Foxw. ex Elm. Dipterocarpaceae x x x
Hopea philippinensis Dyer Dipterocarpaceae x x x
Hopea plagata (Blco.) Vid. Dipterocarpaceae x
Hypobathrum purpureum (Elm.) Merr. Rubiaceae x
Ixora bartlingii Elm. Rubiaceae x
Ixora longistipula Merr. Rubiaceae x x x x
Ixora salicifolia (Bl.) DC. Rubiaceae x x x
Kibatalia blancoi (Rolfe) Merr. Apocynaceae x x x
Appendix
49
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Kingiodendron alternifolium (Elm.) Merr. &
Rolfe
Leguminosae x x x x x
Knema glomerata (Blco.) Merr. Myristicaceae x x x
Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blco.) Merr. Anacardiaceae x
Leea aculeata Bl. Leeaceae x x x x
Leea guinensis G. Don Leeaceae x x x x x
Leea quadrifida Merr. Leeaceae x x x x
Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh. Sapindaceae x
Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. Urticaceae x x x
Lithocarpus buddii (Merr.) A. Camus Fagaceae x x x
Lithocarpus caudatifolia (Merr.) Rehd. Fagaceae x
Lithocarpus coopertus (Blco.) Rehd. Fagaceae x x
Litsea garciae Vid. Lauraceae x
Litsea leytensis Merr. Lauraceae x x
Lophopetalum javanicum (Zoll.) Turcz. Celastraceae x x
Lunasia amara Blco. Rutaceae x
Macaranga grandifolia(Blcol.) Merr. Euphorbiaceae x
Macaranga hispida (Bl.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x
Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x
Maesa denticulata Mez. Myrsinaceae x
Magnolia liliifera (L.) Baill. Magnoliaceae x x
Mallotus lackeyi Elm. Euphorbiaceae x
Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x
Mangifera altissima Blco. Anacardiaceae x x
Maranthes corymbosa Bl. Chrysobalanaceae x
Matthaea pubescens Merr. Monimiaceae x
Melientha suavis Pierre ssp. suavis Opiliaceae x
Memecylon paniculatum Jack Melastomataceae x
Micromelum compressum (Blco.) Merr. Rutaceae x x x
Morinda bracteata Roxb. Rubiaceae x
Mussaenda philippica A. Rich. Rubiaceae x x
Myristica cf. frugifera W.J.J. de Wilde Myristicaceae x x x
Myristica philippensis Lam. Myristicaceae x
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
50
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Myristica simiarum A. DC. ssp. simiarum Myristicaceae x x x
Nauclea subdita (Korth.) Stend. Rubiaceae x x x
Neonauclea formicaria (Elm.) Merr. Rubiaceae x
Neonauclea lanceolata (Bl.) Merr. ssp. gracilis
(Vidal) Ridsdale
Rubiaceae x x x x x
Neotrewia cumingii (Muell.-Arg.) Pax &
Hoffm.
Euphorbiaceae x x x x
Octomeles sumatrana Miq. Datiscaceae x x
Olea borneensis Boerl. Oleaceae x
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Bignoniaceae x x
Osmoxylon trilobatum (Merr.) Philipson Araliaceae x x x x x x
Palaquium philippense (Perr.) C.B. Rob. Sapotaceae x x
Parashorea malaanonan (Blco.) Merr. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x x
Phaleria perottetiana (Decn.) F.-Vill. Thymelaeaceae x x
Picrasma javanica Bl. Simaroubaceae x x x x x
Pithecelobium subacutum (Blco.) Benth. Leguminosae x
Planchonella mindanaensis Clemens Sapotaceae x
Platea excelsa var. borneensis (Heine) Sleum. Icacinaceae x x x
Podocarpus rumphii Bl. Podocarpaceae x x x
Polyosma integrifolia Bl. Saxifragaceae x
Polyscias nodosa (Bl.) Seem. Araliaceae x x x x
Pometia pinnata Forst. Sapindaceae x x x x
Popowia pisocarpa (Bl.) Endl. Annonaceae x
Pouteria firma (Miq.) Baehni Sapotaceae x
Praravinia cf. mindanensis (Elm.) Brem. Rubiaceae x x x
Prunus arborea (Bl.) Kalkman var. arborea Rosaceae x x x
Prunus grisea (Bl.) Kalkman Rosacae x
Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Leguminosae x x
Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blco.) Merr. Sterculiaceae x x x x x x
Pterospermum diversifolium Bl. Sterculiaceae x x
Pterospermum elongatum Korth. Sterculiaceae x
Pterospermum obliquum Blco. Sterculiaceae x x
Radermachera pinnata (Blco.) Seem. Bignoniaceae x x x
Appendix
51
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Reinwardtiodendron humile (Hassk.) Mabb. Meliaceae x x x
Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Bl. Caprifoliaceae x
Saurauia samarensis Merr. Saurauiaceae x
Semecarpus cuneiformis Blco. Anacardiaceae x x
Severinia disticha (Blco.) Merr. Rutaceae x
Shorea almon Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x x
Shorea assamica Dyer forma philippinensis
(Brandis) Sym.
Dipterocarpaceae x x
Shorea astylosa Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x
Shorea contorta S. Vidal Dipterocarpaceae x x x x x x
Shorea falciferoides Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x
Shorea guiso (Blco.) Bl. Dipterocarpaceae x
Shorea polysperma (Blco.) Merr. Dipterocarpaceae x x x
Shorea squamata (Turcz.) Dyer Dipterocarpaceae x x x
Sterculia multistipularis Elm. Sterculiaceae x x x x x x
Sterculia oblongata R. Br. Sterculiaceae x
Sterculia philippinensis Merr. Sterculiaceae x
Sterculia stipulata Korth. var. jagori (Warb.)
Tantra
Sterculiaceae x x x
Streblus ilicifolia (Vidal) Corner Moraceae x
Streblus macrophyllus Bl. Moraceae x
Strombosia philippinensis (Baill.) Rolfe Olacaceae x x x x x
Suregada glomerulata (Hassk.) Jones Euphorbiaceae x
Sycopsis dunnii Hemsl. Hamamelidaceae x x
Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Poir. Apocynaceae x
Tarenna cumingiana (Vid.) Elm. Rubiaceae x
Tarrenoidea wallichii (Hook. f.) Tirv. & Sastre Rubiaceae x
Teijsmanniodendron pteropodium (Miq.)
Bakh.
Verbenaceae x
Terminalia microcarpa Decne. Combretaceae x
Terminalia nitens Presl Combretaceae x
Ternstroemia philippinensis Merr. Thymelaeaceae x
Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe Meliaceae x
Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines
52
Species Family R. U.
Sl.
M.
Sl.
L.
Sl.
R.
B.
S.
Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. Ulmaceae x
Tristania decorticata Merr. Myrtaceae x
Tristania micrantha Merr. Myrtaceae x
Vatica mangachapui Blco. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x
Vavaea amicorum Benth. Meliaceae x x
Villebrunea rubescens (Bl.) Bl. Urticaceae x
Villebrunea trinerva Wedd. Urticaceae x
Vitex parviflora Juss. Verbenaceae x x
Vitex turczaninowii Merr. Verbenaceae
Wallaceodendron celebicum Koord. Leguminosae x
Wendlandia luzoniensis DC. Rubiaceae x
Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Bl.) Dietr. Polygalaceae x x x
Xanthophytum fruticulosum Reinw. ex Bl. Rubiaceae x x
Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves Myrtaceae x x x
Ziziphus angustifolius (Miq.) Hatus. ex v.
Steenis
Rhamnaceae x x x
Appendix 4: Tree Species Suggested for Inclusion in the Project´s Reforestation Scheme (Rainforestation)
Scientific Name
(Common Official Name 3)
Family Growth
Habit4
Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5
Acer laurinum Hassk.
(baliág)
Aceraceae l-t slope and ridge; ~500 m light- to medium-weight hardwood of some
ornamental value; household utensils, furniture,
instruments; usually in hill and montane forests
(800-2550 m)
Acmena acuminatissima (Bl.)
Merr. & Perry (binolóan)
Myrtaceae m-t ridge; ~350-450 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood; construction,
furniture, household utensils, instruments
Alangium longiflorum Merr.
(malatápai)
Alangiaceae s-t ridge; ~250-350 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood, house
construction, furniture, cabinet work, etc.;
sapwood non-susceptible to Lyctus (a beetle),
heartwood non-susceptible to dry-wood termites
Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl.
ex Miq. (salíngkugi)
Leguminosae s-t to m-t secondary ridge forest; ~400 m moderately hard and heavy, furniture, interior finish
etc.;
Canarium denticulatum Bl.
(kalísau)
Burseraceae m to l-t lower slopes and riverbanks;
~50-150 m
light- to medium-weight wood; light or temporary
construction; river bank stabilization
Canarium asperum Benth.
(pagsahíngin)
Burseraceae m to l-t ridge to lower slope; 200-500 m light- to medium-weight, moderately soft to
moderately hard wood; indoor use
Scientific Name
(Common Official Name 3)
Family Growth
Habit4
Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5
Cinnamomum mercadoi S.
Vidal (kalíngag)
Lauraceae m-t ridge to lower slopes; 400-500 m light- to medium-weight hardwood, construction,
cabinet work; bark contains cinnamom
Cubilia cubili (Blco.) Adelh.
(kubíli)
Sapindaceae l-t slopes; ~ 250 m medium-weight hardwood; interior con-struction,
carpentry; fruits edible (´castanas`)
Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Miq.
(ánang)
Ebenaceae s-t to m-t upper to lower slopes; 200-450
m
"ebony", heavy hardwood, sculptures, furniture,
cabinet work, etc.; very valuable
Duabanga moluccana Bl.
(loktób)
Sonneratiaceae l-t river bank; ~ 100 m soft & light wood; fast growing; potential for river
bank stabilization
Hopea plagata (Blco.) Vid.
(yakál-saplúngan)
Dipterocarpaceae m-t to l-t ridge; ~300-400 m heavy construction timber
Kingiodendron alternifolium
(Elm.) Merr. & Rolfe (batete)
Leguminosae l-t ridge to lower slope; 250-450 m medium-weight hardwood; furniture, cabinet work,
flooring, etc.
Lithocarpus coopertus (Blco.)
Rehder (dalútan)
Fagaceae m-t river bank and lower slope; ~
50-150 m
medium-weight to heavy wood, furniture, flooring,
ceiling, etc., moderately durable; potential for river
bank stabilization
Litsea leytensis Merr.
(batikúling)
Lauraceae m-t lower and middle slopes; ~ 150-
250 m
light- to medium-weight hardwood, carving,
pattern making, ceilings, etc.; endangered
Lophopetalum javanicum
(Zoll.) Turcz. (abúab)
Celastraceae l-t ridge; ~450 m lightweight hardwood, joinery, cabinet work,
furniture, easy to work; bark contains dart poison
Scientific Name
(Common Official Name 3)
Family Growth
Habit4
Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5
Mangifera altissima Blco.
(pahútan)
Anacardiaceae l-t slope; ~300-400 m light- to medium-weight hardwood, general
construction, furniture, cabinet work; endangered
Maranthes corymbosa Bl.
(liúsin)
Chrysobalanaceae l-t ridge; ~350-400 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood; construction
wood; fruit edible
Octomeles sumatrana Miq.
(binúang)
Datiscaceae l-t river bank; ~80 m lightweight hardwood; not durable; very fast
growing; potential for river bank stabilisation
Pouteria firma (Miq.) Baehni
(bagomáho)
Sapotaceae l-t ridge; 450-500 m "nyatoh"; light- to medium-weight, moderately hard
to hard wood, indoor use like fine furniture,
panelling, etc.
Reinwardtiodendron humile
(Hassk.) Mabb.
Meliaceae m-t ridge to lower slope; 250-450 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood; high grade
furniture
Shorea falciferoides Foxw.
(yakál-yambán)
Dipterocarpaceae l-t ridge and upper slope; 450-500
m
heavy hardwood, all sorts of heavy construction
work
Tristania micrantha Merr.
(tíga)
Myrtaceae m-t to l-t ridge and upper slope; 350-450
m
heavy hardwood, durable; heavy construction
Scientific Name
(Common Official Name 3)
Family Growth
Habit4
Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5
Vatica mangachapoi Blco.
(naríg)
Dipterocarpaceae m-t to l-t ridge and upper slope; ~400-500
m
medium-weight to heavy hardwood, strong and
durable
Wallaceodendron celebicum
Koord. (banúyo)
Leguminosae l-t ridge; 250-400 m// regeneration
common along the ridge at about
300 - 400 m, one huge tree at
about 300 m; shade intolerant
medium-weight hardwood; valuable decorative
timber for interior work, furniture, musical
instruments, etc.; traded as’ Derahm mahagony`
Xanthostemon verdugonianus
Naves (mangkóno)
Myrtaceae l-t steep slopes; ~ 400 m heavy hardwood ("Philippine ironwood"), very
durable; considered endangered in the Philippines
1 According to Salvosa (1967)
1 Describes the growth habit encountered in the study area: s-t: small tree (diameter up to 30 cm, height up to 5 m); m-t: medium-sized tree (diameter 30 to 40
cm, height 5 to 15 m); l-t: large tree (diameter over 40 cm, height over 15 m)
1 Cited from: Soerianegara et al. (1994), Sosef et al. (1998), Lemmens et al. (1995)
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